Pedagogy

On Spencer Rathus Childhood Voyages in Development

Introduction

The development of human beings may be likened to the development of a butterfly from a cocoon. In the same way that the larvae creates a cocoon that enables it to become a butterfly, the human infant also undergoes physiological, cognitive, and psychological changes that enables it to transform into an entirely new creature, who like the butterfly is given the capability to achieve an autonomous life. The development of children from infanthood to adulthood can be seen on a daily basis as new children are continually born in this world. Initially, children are introduced into this world as small and helpless entities however as the years pass, the developments in their physical, cognitive and psychological traits allow them to fully participate in this world without being dependent on their primary caregivers.

Since all of these developments are mostly unnoticed, it is crucial to acknowledge, know, and understand the different aspects involved in childrens development. As Rathus (2010) claims, We cannot hope to understand ourselves as adults-we cannot catch a glimpse of the remarkable journeys we have taken-without understanding children (p. 2). Such is the case since knowledge of ourselves as adults entails our ability to trace our beginnings and reconnect andor associate our present selves from our past selves. In Rathus view, possessing knowledge of our growth during our childhood allows us to gain insight into the following (1)  human nature, (2) origins of human behavior, (3) sex differences and gender roles, (4) the effects of culture on development  and (5) the origins, prevention and treatment of developmental problems (2010, p. 3-4). Knowledge of our development as children, in other words, provides us with a deeper understanding of the human being, one that considers the causal relationship between the different factors involved in his development as well as the different factors involved in his interaction with other human beings.

In line with this, the following discussion provides an analysis of Rathus Childhood with an emphasis on the different aspects of a childs development. It is important to note at the onset that the division of the following discussion is in accordance to Rathus chapters in his text. Doing so will allow the discussion to focus on the crucial elements involved in a childs infancy, early childhood, and middle childhood.

Defining the Parameters of Child Development

In the initial chapter of his text, Rathus provides the history, theories, and methods pertaining to child development. A child here refers to a person undergoing the period of development from infancy to puberty (Rathus, 2010, p.2). Infancy pertains to the period of life before the development of complex speech (Rathus, 2010, p.2). Development, on the other hand, refers to the orderly appearance, over time, of physical structures, psychological traits, behaviors, and ways of adapting to the demands of life (Rathus, 2010, p.2). The history, theories, and methods related to childhood development thereby provide the information regarding the orderly appearance of various traits in a child from the period of his conception to puberty (Rathus, 2010).

It is important to note that the term development is not a fixed and static concept. In the context of Rathus text, he chooses to outline his work in line with the physical developments of a child as opposed to focusing on the culture related changes that affect the growth of a human being. This is evident as he defines childhood development as a field of inquiry that attempts to understand the process that govern(s) the appearance and growth of childrens physical structures, psychological traits, behavior patterns, understanding, and ways of adapting to the demands of life (Rathus, 2010, p.3). His tendency to focus on the physical changes that a child undergoes may be attributed to his inclusion of prenatal development in his discussion of childhood development. The focus on the physical aspects of a childs development may thereby be attributed to the dominance of the physical changes in a child during the period of his conception until the initial part of his infancy.

In the initial chapter, Rathus (2010) also provides different theories on development, one of which is behaviorism. Behaviorism assumes that the learning process may be enabled by creating associations between two objects or stimuli. It is important to make a distinction between non-associative and associative learning. In comparison to associative learning, non-associative learning does not create associations between two forms of stimuli. There are generally two types of this form of learning, these being habituation and sensitization. In the process of habituation, a child learns to ignore stimuli because of constant exposure. An example of this form of learning is evident when a child becomes indifferent to the usual sounds that he encounters in his environment. Consider for example the reaction of a child whose initial exposure to the sound of a dog barking leads to anxiety. Later on as the child becomes used to the sound, the initial reaction will change in the sense that instead of experiencing anxiety, the child will become indifferent to the stimuli. This type of learning has also taken place when a child becomes indifferent to the presence of another individual that he has gotten used to. As opposed to habituation, another form of non-associative learning is sensitization. An example of sensitization can be seen in the heightened response of ones senses because of a strong stimulus.

In comparison to non-associative learning, associative leaning necessitates the childs association of two events. It takes two forms, classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning. Classical conditioning involves the association of a stimulus that evokes a measurable response with a second stimulus that normally does not evoke that response. An example of this response can be seen as a child expects to be breastfed when its mouth is moved close to its mothers breast. Instrumental conditioning, on the other hand involves an individuals association of a response with a meaningful stimulus. An example of this is evident when an animal learns that the performance of specific action leads to the attainment of a reward.

Overall, the initial chapter shows that knowledge of the principles of childhood development is important since it enables us to help children to reach their potential as individuals. The different theories that have evolved within the field show that predictable changes occur in all domains of development cognitive, physical, social, and emotional, although the ways that these changes manifest and the meanings attached to them may vary in the different theoretical perspectives.

Beginnings

It is important to note that there are several factors that play a pivotal role in a childs development prior to a childs conception. These factors are not merely determined by the characteristics and experiences of a childs future parents andor caregivers since they are also affected by the development of the genetic structure as well as the genetic traits of human beings in general. The second, third, and fourth chapter of Rathus text focuses on the different aspects that influence ones genetic make-up as well as on how its effects determine and influence a childs development inside the womb.

Heredity and Conception

In the second chapter of his text, Rathus (2010) describes the influence of heredity on conception. He introduces the relationship between them by reintroducing the nature vs. nurture debate that aims to account for the extent of the influence of natural physical traits in a childs development as opposed to the cultural and social factors that may also influence it. From Rathus (2010) perspective, nature also plays a pivotal role in the development of a child since the genetic traits that set the potentialities of a child are determined by the traits that he inherited from his ancestors. In line with this, Rathus states, Heredity defines ones nature-which is based on the biological transmission of traits and characteristics from one generation to another  Heredity plays a momentous role in the determination of human traits  Genetic influences are fundamental in the transmission of physical traits, such as height, hair texture, and eye color . It also appears to be a factor in intelligence and in the origins of personality traits. (2010, p.50)

In the rest of the chapter, Rathus (2010) discusses the different ways that heredity influences development. He notes for example that the differences between identical and fraternal twins are also influenced by heredity. The former, which are also called monozygotic twins, are produced when a zygote divides into two cells (Rathus, 2010). The later, which are also called dizygotic twins, are produced when two different sperms fertilize two ova (Rathus, 2010). The other influences of heredity are also apparent in the case of individuals who have chromosome related diseases such as Down syndrome and Klinefelter syndrome. Down syndrome refers to a chromosomal abnormality characterized by mental retardation  caused by an extra chromosome in the 21st pair (Rathus, 2010, p.67). As opposed to this, the Klinefelter syndrome refers to a chromosomal disorder found among males that is caused by an extra X sex chromosome  that is characterized by infertility and mild mental retardation (Rathus, 2010, p.68).

The interesting aspect in Rathus discussion in the second chapter of his text lies in his implicit assumption that the dichotomy between nature and nurture no longer captures the issues pertaining to a childs development. Such is the case since the scientific and technological developments in the 21st century has allowed the interrelation between nature and nurture as can be seen in the role of genetic counseling as well as gene therapy in a childs development. Genetic counseling here refers to the advice concerning the probabilities that a couples children will show genetic abnormalities (Rathus, 2010, p.60). Gene therapy, on the other hand refers to the process wherein the genetic structures of organisms are changed by direct manipulation of their cells (Rathus, 2010, p.60). The role of action here is apparent as the decisions of a childs parents initially influence the genetic structure of a child in such a way that his genetic traits are predetermined to produce specific traits and abilities. Although one may argue that it is ultimately heredity, which takes a primary role in defining a childs traits in the context of gene therapy, one may also argue that the social conditions also determine whether a childs primary caregivers will choose to manipulate their childs genetic traits. In other words, if gene therapy enables the manipulation of a childs genetic structure, the manipulation process in itself may be perceived as a social and cultural factor that represents as well as reinterprets the role of the environment in childhood development.

Prenatal Development

From discussing the complex relationship between nature and nurture, Rathus specifies the complex changes that every child undergoes in the uterus in the third chapter of his text. He begins the chapter with the claim, The most rapid and dramatic human developments are literally out of sight- they take place in the uterus (Rathus, 2010, p.76). These changes may be divided into three distinct phases (1) germinal stage, (2) embryonic stage, and (3) fetal stage (Rathus, 2010). The germinal stage refers to the period of development between conception and the implantation of the embryo (Rathus, 2010, p.76). The embryonic stage, on the other hand, refers to the stage of prenatal development that lasts from implantation through the eighth week of pregnancy which is characterized by the development of the major organ systems (Rathus, 2010, p.80). Finally, the fetal stage refers to the stage of development that lasts from the beginning of the ninth week of pregnancy through birth which is characterized by gains in size and weight and maturation of the organ system (Rathus, 2010, p.85).

Each of the changes that occur during the different stages in the prenatal period is also affected by different environmental factors, majority of which are related to the mothers physical traits and decisions. Such is the case since the environment of a given cell is the other cells with which it has contact. Given that the embryo is enclosed in the mothers womb, it only has contact with the cells of its mothers womb. It is only during the later period of the embryonic stage that it becomes prone to hormonal changes. With this in mind, Rathus (2010) divides the environmental factors affecting a child in the prenatal period in the following categories (1) nutrition, (2) health problems, (3) drugs taken by parents, (4) environmental hazards, (5) maternal stress and (6) parents age. Amongst these factors, Rathus emphasizes the effects of the drugs that the mother takes in the prenatal development of a child. In the case of alcohol, for example, he notes that mothers who take alcohol during their pregnancy may have children born with fetal alcohol syndrome FAS. Manifestations of FAS include but are not limited to developmental lags and facial features and mental retardation (Rathus, 2010, p.98). Other drugs that have a negative effect on the fetus include cocaine, nicotine, and caffeine (Rathus, 2010).

By specifying the different kinds of development that a child undergoes during a particular period in his prenatal development, Rathus provides sufficient information that may help a person to manipulate the environmental factors of an embryo or a fetus that ensures its optimal development. Consider for example that by ensuring that a pregnant woman is well-nourished, the effects of malnutrition may be prevented and as such there is a lower probability that the child will have low birth weight, stunted growth, retardation of brain developments, and behavioral problems (Rathus, 2010, p.103). The information in the chapter thereby provides the minimal information necessary for a person to know the kind of lifestyle that she ought to pursue during her pregnancy. In addition, it also provides the minimal information necessary to guide a person on how she ought to interact with her fetus during a specific period in the prenatal development of a child.

Birth and the Newborn Baby

After specifying the different aspects involved in prenatal development, Rathus ends the first part of Childhood by discussing the birthing process and the characteristics of neonates. Although the birthing process and the postpartum experiences of mothers are not directly included in the development of a child, Rathus implicitly argues that the inclusion of these topics in the discussion is attributed to the mothers role as the primary caregiver of the child. As the primary caregiver, the mother stands both as the immediate environment that the child interacts with as well as the entity who is immediately affected by the childs conception in this world (Rathus, 2010). In addition, the birthing process also chronicles the final internal interaction of the child inside his mothers body.

Rathus (2010) divides the stages of childbirth into three. The first stage involves the uterine walls contractions that efface and dilate the cervix to about four inches to enable the babys passage through it (Rathus, 2010). The second stage involves the babys movement through the end of the birth canal (Rathus, 2010). The final stage, on the other hand, involves the placentas separation from the uterine wall and its expulsion through the birth canal (Rathus, 2010). All of these stages are experienced during natural childbirth and prepared childbirth. The distinction between the two may be attributed to the technique administered by both methods during birthing process. Natural childbirth refers to a method of childbirth in which women use no anesthesia and are educated about childbirth and strategies for coping with discomfort (Rathus, 2010, p.117).  Prepared childbirth, on the other hand, refers to a childbirth method in which women are educated about childbirth, learn to relax and breathe in patterns that conserve energy and lessen pain, and have a coach (Rathus, 2010, p.117). The distinction between the two may be attributed to the methods they adhere to in lessening the pain in the birthing process. As opposed to both methods, another childbirth method is the caesarian method, which involves the neonates delivery through a surgical incision in the abdomen (Rathus, 2010). Compared to both the natural and prepared childbirth methods, the caesarian method does not follow the three stages of childbirth specified above.

Despite the differences between the methods mentioned above, the effects of the birthing process to the mother remain the same. According to the American Psychiatric Association APA (2000), at least 70 of new mothers experience periods of tearfulness, sadness, and irritability that is associated with baby blues (as cited in Rathus, 2010, p.127). This occurs during the postpartum period, which is the period that immediately follows childbirth (Rathus, 2010, p.127). In line with this, the prolonged depression that most new mothers experience after childbirth is dubbed postpartum depression PPD (Rathus, 2010). The danger of PPD lies not only in the psychological condition of the mother but also in its immediate effect in the relationship of the mother and the child. PPD may hinder the bonding process, which is an essential course that ensures the well-being as well as the survival of a child (Rathus, 2010).

On his own, a neonate possesses reflexes that are essential for his survival. Examples of these are the rooting or sucking reflex that is necessary for the neonate to discover his mothers nipple during the breastfeeding process (Rathus, 2010). In addition, the grasping reflex ensures that the baby is capable of handling his weight. (Rathus, 2010). Although most reflexes disappear after a particular period, some reflexes remain with us through the rest of our lives such as the blinking and breathing reflexes. Ultimately, the existence of these reflexes in a neonate ensures the good condition of his neural system (Rathus, 2010).

Overall, Rathus final chapter of what he considers as the beginning of a childs development provides adequate information regarding the birthing process as well as the initial characteristics of a neonate. Aside from specifying the reflexes of a neonate, Rathus also discusses a neonates sensory capabilities along with his learning abilities. The chapters content provides adequate information on how a person should also respond to a female in her final term as well on how to respond to a female experiencing PDD.

Infancy

The second part of Rathus text marks a new stage for a childs development, that being the period of infancy. The initial two years in a childs life shows various physical, cognitive, social, and developmental changes. The interrelationship between these changes is apparent, as certain physical traits must necessarily develop in a child before he becomes capable of interacting with his social environment. In the same manner, interaction with other entities also requires the development of specific cognitive traits. In line with this, the fifth, sixth, and seventh chapter of Rathus Childhood provides a prolonged discussion of these physical, cognitive, social, and developmental changes.

Physical Development

Compared to other periods in life, physical development is faster in infants. In the span of a year, it is possible for a child to triple his weight and double his height from birth. In Childhood, Rathus specifies the three sequences of physical development in an infant, these being cephalocaudal development, proximodistal development and differentiation (2010, p.150).According to Rathus (2010), the development of an infant initially involves the development of his neural center which is his brain. Following the development of his brain is the rest of his body. Cephalocaudal development emphasizes that development begins from head to tail or in the case of human beings from head to the lower parts of the body (Rathus, 2010, p.151).  As opposed to this, proximodistal development states that an infants development proceeds from the trunk or center axis of the body hence an infants nervous system develops prior to his arms and legs (Rathus, 2010). Finally, differentiation states that as a child grows his physical reactions becomes more specific (Rathus, 2010).

These three sequences of physical development are used as a basis to assess whether an infants physical development is in line with his age. In some instances, infants are assessed to have Failure to Thrive disorder FTT, which refers to a condition characterized by impaired growth in infancy and early childhood characterized by failure to gain weight within normal limits (Rathus, 2010, p.154). In other instances, a childs inability to develop physically is not only caused by his genetic make-up as it is also caused by the type of nutrition that he receives. Consider for example that drinking breast milk is directly related to avoiding obesity in adulthood (Rathus, 2010).

After setting the framework for understanding an infants physical development, Rathus focuses on the specific changes in an infants brain and nervous system, motor development, and sensory and perceptual development. Amongst these different aspects of an infants development, it is interesting to note the role of external stimuli in ensuring the optimal development of a childs sense. As Rathus (2010) notes, in the case of the nature and nurture debate in perceptual development, it is  not merely the childs genetic traits which affects the acuity of his sense since certain external stimuli may be given that ensures the development of specific responses from an infant. He claims, Nature and nurture interact to shape perceptual development. Nature continues to guide the unfolding of the childs physical systems. Yet nurture continues to interact with nature in the development of these systems (Rathus, 2010, p.178).

Cognitive Development

Given the new physical capabilities that are continually made available to an infant during the two initial years of his life, his awareness of his surroundings develops and along with this, he develops certain cognitive traits, one of which is his acquisition and development of linguistic skills. In line with this, Rathus devotes the sixth chapter of his text to the cognitive development of an infant. He divides the chapter into seven parts wherein the initial part provides a framework for understanding infant cognitive development in the form of Jean Piagets Cognitive-Developmental Theory.

Piagets theory was introduced in the initial chapter of the text as a stage driven theory that argues that a child achieves varying stages of cognitive development throughout his life span.  Rathus defines a cognitive-developmental theory as a stage theory that holds that the childs abilities to mentally represent the world and solve problems unfold as a result of the interaction of experience and the maturation of neurological structures (2010, p.18). During the infanthood, Piaget argued that a child is in the sensorimotor stage since his cognitive development manifests themselves in the development of his sensory and motor skills (Rathus, 2010). The different manifestations of these involve an infants recognition of object permanence, which is apparent as an infant recognizes that an object continues to exist despite his inability to perceive it (Rathus, 2010). An example of a childs recognition of object permanence is apparent as he recognizes that his mother does not cease to exist whenever she plays hide and seek with him. According to Piaget, the importance of object permanence in the development of an infants consciousness is apparent if one considers that it is during this stage that the infant initially learns to think using representations.

In addition to providing the framework for understanding an infants cognitive development, Rathus (2010) also provides some criticisms to Piagets theory in the remaining parts of the chapter. One of the criticisms specified in the text argues that in order to perceive cognitive development as stage driven, it is necessary to assume immediate changes in the cognitive capacities of a child from one level to another. As an alternative to Piagets theory, Rathus (2010) introduces the information-processing approach, which assumes that the developments in a childs cognitive capacities may be attributed to the development of his memory.

In line with the later theory, Rathus expands on the role of memory in a childs language development. It is important to note that one of the most important achievements of a child during his first two years of existence may be attributed to his acquisition of the linguistic skills necessary to communicate with the individuals in his immediate surroundings. The acquisition of these skills may be attributed not only to a childs memory but also to the plasticity of his brain during the first 18 months of his existence (Rathus, 2010). According to the linguistic theory, a sensitive period exists wherein the developments in a childs brain allows it to learn different kinds of languages. It is in line with this assumption of the linguistic theory that Rathus posits that the development of a child may not only be attributed to his natural traits but also to the way that he is nurtured. Such is the case since in order to take advantage of the plasticity of an infants brain during this period, it is necessary for his primary caregivers to introduce him to different stimuli that would further help him to acquire the linguistic skills necessary for a specific language. As Rathus states,

The development of language in infancy represents the interaction of environmental and biological factors. The child brings a built-in readiness to the task of language acquisition  however the child must also have the opportunity to hear spoken language and to interact verbally with others. (2010, p.212)

Social and Emotional Development

Compared to the previous aspects of development during infancy, the social and emotional developments of a child emphasize the role of nurturing or the environment in an infants development. In the seventh chapter of the text, Rathus extrapolates on how attachment is developed between an infant and its primary caregiver. Attachment here refers to an affectional bond between individuals characterized by a seeking of closeness or contact and a show of distress upon separation (Rathus, 2010, p.218).

Based on the discussion in the neonatal development of a child, one may assume that it is not necessary to develop attachment between a mother and a child since it ought to be a natural response of both parties. In addition, one may further assume that it is natural that the attachment between both parties is always a secure one. Such however is not the case as can be seen in individuals who experience PTT. Attachment, like any other social and emotional relationship requires development and as such is characterized by different phases. According to Rathus (2010), there are different kinds of attachment that may develop between an infant and its primary caregiver, these being (1) secure attachment, (2) avoidant attachment, (3) ambivalent or resistant attachment, and (4) disorganized-disoriented attachment. The difference between these kinds of attachment can be traced to the kind and amount of distress felt by one or both parties in an event of their separation. Consider for example that a secure attachment is characterized by mild distress at leave-takings, seeking nearness to an attachment figure, and being readily soothed by the figure (Rathus, 2010, p.219). As opposed to this disorganized-disoriented attachment is characterized by dazed and contradictory behaviors towards an attachment figure (Rathus, 2010, p.219).

The distinction between both forms of attachment mentioned above is a result of the child-rearing practices as well as the patterns of attachment developed between both parties in the relationship. Rathus claims, Patterns of attachment tend to persist when care-giving conditions remain consistent (2010, p.223). In addition, the patterns of attachment are also prone to change if there are changes in the methods used in childcare (Rathus, 2010). This conception of the factors that influence an attachment between an infant and its primary caregiver are both reinforced by two different theories, the cognitive and behavioral theories of development as well as other theories (Rathus, 2010). The former associates the development of attachment with an infants grasp of object permanence whereas the later understands it within the context of reinforcements (Rathus, 2010). Despite the distinction between both theories, it is clear that they both agree in the fluctuating conditions in the attachment between an infant and his primary caregiver during the period of infanthood.

From the discussion of the main frameworks necessary to understand an attachment, Rathus provides information on the effects of the lack of attachment to a child and its repercussions in the emotional stability of an infant. As opposed to the previous chapters, it is interesting to note that Rathus chooses to extrapolate on the social and political effects of a specific form or practice of nurturing a child as opposed to further showing the relationship between nature and nurture. This does not necessarily entail that Rathus places premium on the environment in an infants development. On the other hand, it ought to be understood as his way of showing that effects of the environment to an infants development are not only important in ensuring the optimal development of an infants physical and cognitive traits since it also has a direct repercussion on the social and political conditions in a particular period in history.

Early Childhood

The years after infancy are referred to as the period of early childhood, which spans the following three years of a childs life after his infancy. This period is generally characterized by the childs utilization of the various capabilities that he has developed during his infancy. In addition, this period also involves the childs conscious discovery of his surroundings. Rathus devotes three chapters in his text, respectively Chapters eight to ten for this period of a childs development. Each of the chapters he devotes to the period of early childhood corresponds with a specific development in a childs life, respectively his physical, cognitive, and social and emotional development.

Physical Development

In addition to the trend in a childs physical development that Rathus discussed in one of the previous chapters, he chose to focus on specific physical traits and capabilities that a child develops in his discussion of the physical developments in early childhood in the eighth chapter of his text. One of these traits and capabilities involves a childs development and acquisition of fine motor skills. These refer to the skills in employing the small muscles used in manipulation (Rathus, 2010, p.269). One of fine motor skills Rathus chose to focus on in his discussion is the childs development of handedness. Handedness here refers to a childs utilization of a particular hand in the process of scribbling or writing (Rathus, 2010). Rathus specifically defines handedness as the tendency to prefer using the left or right hand in writing and other activities (2010, p.270).  Initially perceived to be based on preference, research shows that ones handedness has a relationship with specific physical characteristics of an individual. An example of this was given by Rathus as he points out, Handedness may reflect the differential development of the hemisphere of the cortex (2010, p.272).

Despite the differences in a childs handedness, the similarity between children in early adulthood is traceable to the similarity of the stages that they undergo in the development of their fine motor skills. Consider for example that in the process of developing his handedness, a child undergoes various stages, these being (1) placement stage, (2) shape stage, (3) design stage, and (4) pictorial stage (Rathus, 2010). These stages correspond with the development of a childs cognitive skills. In the placement stage, for example, children place their scribbles in various locations on the page (Rathus, 2010, p.270). As opposed to this, in the pictorial stage, designs begin to resemble recognizable objects (Rathus, 2010, p. 270). The development of a childs fine motor skills thereby correspond with the development of his cognitive skills which is evident in his utilization of his physical skills in representing or using the cognitive skills that he has developed during the period of his infancy and early childhood.

In the remaining part of the chapter, Rathus specifies the different types of illness and disorders that a child may experience during the period of his early childhood. Rathus focus on these aspects shows that in terms of physical developments, the period of early adulthood involves a slow process of refining the initial physical changes that the child underwent during the later part of his infancy.

Cognitive Development

As opposed to the slow changes in a childs body during early childhood, a child undergoes numerous cognitive changes in the period of early adulthood. These changes were specified by Rathus in the ninth chapter of his book. A childs recognition of his membership in the human race is initially enabled as he recognizes the distinction of his body from the objects and bodies of other individuals around him. This is specified by Piaget in her theory of cognitive development. In Piagets theory, he argues that a childs reactions to his environment are not determined by rewards and punishment. He argues that children actively participate in the construction of their reality. This construction is dependent upon the cognitive capabilities of a child in certain parts of his life.

After the sensorimotor stage, the pre-operational stage occurs. This occurs when a child is between two to seven years old. There are several developments during this period. One of these developments involves the childs development of an egocentric viewpoint. Egocentrism here refers to a childs tendency to place himself in the center of all things (Rathus, 2010). An example of egocentrism in apparent when a child refuses to eat canned food based on the claim that there are always worms in those cans just because he saw a television show showing worms pouring from cans. During the sensorimotor stage, a child also has a tendency to attribute life to an inanimate object. This animistic thinking may be considered as a manifestation of the way in which a child constructs his own perception of reality. Animistic thinking however wanes as the child gains better understanding of the world, which occurs during the concrete operational stage of development.

Although Rathus also reiterates the problem in Piagets cognitive theory of development in this chapter, his continuous use of Piagets theory shows the extent of Piagets influence in determining the cognitive theories of development. In the rest of the chapter, Rathus introduces the role of consciousness as well as the mind in affecting the way a child thinks. It is interesting to note that it is only during this stage of a childs development that he is attributed with the capability to think for himself as can be seen in the association of the mind and hence consciousness with a child.

Social and Emotional Development

The repercussions of associating the existence of a mind with a child are specifically apparent in the 10th chapter of Rathus text, which discusses the social and emotional development of a child in the period of early childhood. It is important to note that one of the factors behind the association lies in the expansion of a childs memory. In the same way, memory plays a pivotal role in a childs cognitive development, his social and emotional development is affected by his memory, as he is continually influence by the different individuals in his immediate environment. In the chapter, Rathus discusses the effects of both parents and siblings in a childs development of his immediate values. These individuals provide the child with a role model to follow as he is faced with various dilemmas in his young life. As Rathus (2010) argues the childs initial development of a self is molded by the type of family members he has as well as by the type of environment in his home.

In the chapter, Rathus (2010) posits that the self already exists from the period of the childs birth however, the childs awareness of its existence only occurs during the early period of his childhood as he learns to disassociate his body from the other objects in his surroundings. The process of disassociation however requires the childs specification of the traits, which makes him distinct from the other objects or persons around him. Although the period of early childhood does not provide the child with the cognitive abilities to define his self and hence create his own identity, the period provides him with different categorical selves that he may use as he tries to separate his self from those around him.

Middle Childhood

In a similar vein that the changes that a child undergoes in early adulthood are highly dependent on the changes he undergoes during his infancy, middle adulthood is highly dependent on the developmental stages before it. Rathus himself states, The changes in physical, cognitive, social and emotional development reviewed  lay the groundwork for the next major development the middle childhood years (2010, p.362). Rathus discusses the major developments in this period in the last three chapters of his Childhood.

Physical Development

In his discussion of the physical developments during the period of middle adulthood, one of the main aspects specified in the text are the learning disabilities caused by a childs inability to develop his language, academic, and speech skills (Rathus, 2010, p. 384). These disabilities include but are not limited to Attention-Deficit or Hyperactivity Disorder ADHD, dyslexia, dyscalculia, and disorder of written expression (Rathus, 2010). ADHD refers to a behavioral disorder characterized by excessive inattention, impulsiveness, and hyperactivity (Rathus, 2010, p.380). Dyslexia, on the other hand, refers to a reading disorder characterized by problems such as letter reversals, mirror reading, slow reading, and reduced comprehension (Rathus, 2010, p.384). Dyscalculia refers to a mathematics disability (as cited in Rathus, 2010, p.384). Finally, disorder of written expression refers a learning disability characterized by problems in writing (as cited in Rathus, 2010, p.384).

The discovery of these disabilities usually occurs during the period of middle childhood since it is the period that requires the childs use of his language, academic, and speech skills. In addition, it is also the period when the child is introduced to the academic setting, which requires him to develop the said skills. As Rathus (2010) notes in his previous discussions of the developments in early childhood, the childs inability to manifest the physical changes necessary for his age may lead either to his success or to his failure in the period of middle childhood.

Cognitive Development

In the 12th chapter of his text, Rathus continues with the discussion of Piagets cognitive theory of development. During the period of middle childhood, a child is said to be in the concrete operational stage of development. At the age of seven until twelve years old, the cognitive changes that are expected in a child involve the ability to recognize and understand logical relationships amongst different concepts. In addition, this is also the stage, which highlights the development in the childs morality. The period of middle adulthood thereby introduces a child who is capable of distinguishing the difference between right and wrong. This distinction however should not be expected to be based on a well-founded moral system. Rathus claims, Children in middle adulthood often judge in terms of rules rather than circumstances and human needs (2010, p.400). The source of the rules they use as the bases for their judgment however varies depending on the predominant moral system in their surroundings.

The introduction of moral children is crucial in the cognitive development of a child since it shows a childs ability to synthesize or at least adopt the existing moral perspective in his surroundings. This shows that the child is capable of going beyond his egoistic self as he chooses to consider an objective worldview. Although it is not necessarily the case that the moral system that a child adopts is objective in this period, the conception of objectivity to the childs moral system is due to the childs belief that his conception of the distinction between good and evil is a universal one. According to Piaget, this manifests that the moral system that a child immediately adheres to is that of moral realism (Rathus, 2010).

Social and Emotional Development

As a child adopts realism as a framework for understanding reality without knowing the flaws of his perspective, there is a tendency for the development of dangerous social and emotional behaviors. Rathus specifies the negative effects of these developments to a child in the 13th chapter of his book. One of the negative factors he specified is the childs tendency to perform conduct disorders, which refers to disorders marked by persistent breaking of the rules and violations of the rights of others (Rathus, 2010, p. 462). These conduct disorders may be attributed to a childs desire to deviate from the customs and practices in his surroundings.

Although Rathus does not discuss the role of deviance in the conduct disorders of children in middle childhood, it is important to note that it may be considered as a factor for the occurrence of such disorders. In the text, the reasons Rathus (2010) specified were the genetic traits of a child as well as the immediate environment of a child in his home. Rathus states, Conduct disorders may have a genetic component. They are more likely to be found among the biological parents that the adoptive parents of adopted children with such problems  There is also a relationship between parental discipline, parental monitoring and conduct problems. (2010, p.462)

Further analysis of cases of conduct disorder may also include the discussion of childrens tendency to perform deviant acts. The concept of deviance is generally understood to refer to the infraction of some rule. Deviant behavior, in this sense, may be understood as the act of going against a particular normative or substantive rule within society. Such a conception of deviant behavior is based on two assumptions. First, deviant behavior is relative because of the difference of the norms within social units and second, deviant behavior is dependent on norms. Given that children during the period of middle childhood already possess a moral perspective, it is possible to assume that their performance of conduct disorders is a result of their desire to deviate against the current perspective of what is considered acceptable in society.

Conclusion

From the discussion of the chapters of Rathus Childhood above, one may conclude that the defining characteristic of his discussion lies in his continuous emphasis on the role of both nature and nurture in the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development of a child. To a certain extent, Rathus text provides a well-created framework for understanding how the interaction between both nature and nurture affect the development of a child and ultimately a human being. It provokes the reader to probe further on how the relationship between a human beings heredity and environment may further influence the growth of children and human beings in general