Pedagogy

Acquiring an in-depth knowledge is the key to development. Howard Gardner (1999), the noted psychologist and an avid explorer of human mind from the perspective of cognitive science and neuroscience, has come up with The Disciplined Mind, which is an elaborated version of a section of his concept of multiple intelligence (MI) that specifically deals about the ways and means of learning with right attitude.

Earlier in his book Multiple Intelligences The Theory in Practice (1993), he unveiled a new horizon of human development by dividing human mind into five faculties and suggesting a systematic development of each of them to attain a superior combination of body, mind and spirit that would not only effectively handle all requirements of life, but also would help humans to manifest their potential on the chosen area.
Gardner named these five faculties of minds as below
The Disciplined Mind
The Synthesizing Mind
The Creating Mind
The Respectful Mind
The Ethical Mind

Out of the above, The Disciplined Mind (henceforth will be called as TDM) is imagined as a driver of enhancing thinking ability to the level of an expert and mastering any areas of learning such as science, history, arts, and mathematics. The role of TDM under the framework of Gardner looks like below  

The role of the disciplined mind in Gardners Five Minds for Future

Gardner suggest achieving disciplined mind by mastering at least a pattern of thinking and grasping in-depth knowledge about a subject which would encourage the person to develop further insight on the subject, instead of parroting the facts on it. Deeply thinking what one is doing could serve the purpose, suggests Gardner, towards developing the understanding of the difference between subject matter and discipline. He clearly hints at the internalization of the subject through learning and practicing and perhaps to avoid the pitfalls like aping others or learning without a sense of purpose, he prescribed investing at least a decade on mastering a particular subject. This is what the disciplinary understanding of truth, beauty and goodness is all about, according to Gardner.

Gardners penchant for structuring mechanism of mind and to exploit it for systematic development of humans becomes apparent when he says, I favor depth over breadth, construction over accumulation, the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake over the obeisance to utility, an individualized over a uniform education, and an education that is public in character.

The greatest contribution of Gardners MI theory is that it enables the teachers to underpin the intelligences that isare more activated in a child and to take appropriate measures to ensure unhindered development of that child. Thus he proceeds on to elaborate how students could acquire the art of meaningfully pursuing the education that would create sustained impact on their application of knowledge. In a way, TDM successfully highlights the significance of approaching education with a mindset of attaining truth, beauty and the good in the end, because these happen to be the essence of all human endeavors, if the plethora of evidences provided by innumerable researchers has anything to go by.

This book is also an improvised version of his earlier concept of multiple intelligences, as it includes nine areas of brain capacity instead of earlier seven. Gardner associates nine areas of intelligence with children development, such as
VisualSpatial This refers to the children who learn best visually and organize things spatially. Thus they would like see every process to garner better understanding, and accordingly they would be more comfortable with charts, graphs, maps, tables, illustrations, art, puzzles, or anything that would catch their imagination.
VerbalLinguistic This refers to children who show strength in the linguistic abilities like speaking, writing, reading, or listening. Thus these children would be more successful in conventional classroom teaching that mostly involves the above elements.

MathematicalLogical This refers to children who show their strength in calculations, reasoning and problem solving. Thus they too appear to well in traditional classroom teaching as the same is logically sequenced and marshaled in a systematic manner.

BodilyKinesthetic This involves children who love to learn more through physical activities like games, movement, practical tasks, etc., who show a fidgeting tendency in the classroom when there is only lecture and no activity
MusicalRhythmic This includes children who tend to organize their learning through elements of music, such as songs, patterns, rhythms, instruments and musical expression. Thus this group of children stands to gain less from the conventional classroom teaching.
Intrapersonal This refers to the internal communication of humans and includes children who are sensitive about their own feelings, beliefs, and ideas. Thus this group of children would show the trait of being silent but keen observer of the proceedings around and would try to decipher their meanings in their own way.
Interpersonal This is about open communication with the people around and it includes children who love to interact with people for knowing and learning. Thus this tendency of theirs could be reflected in their excessive talking or mixing with people.

Naturalist This intelligence involves nature and children who show more inclination with nature and love extensive outdoor activities appear to use this intelligence more than the rest. Thus traditional classroom teaching has less to offer them.

Existentialist The higher influence of this intelligence among children can be found in those who want to learn under the bigger framework of human existence with the aim to underpin their own standing in it. Accordingly they are driven by the questions like Why are we here or What is our role in the world They carry the potential to be philosophers.

Therefore, from a clinical perspective too, this book provides ample scope to test Gardners concept of MI on at least eight areas of learning, such as
Reading Skills
Math Skills
Writing Skills
Spelling Skills
Speed Reading
Study Skills
Self- awareness Skills
Planning and goal setting Abilities

The beauty of the concept lies in the fact that it recognizes each of the above intelligences as one avenue of developing greater understanding of a subject. However, some might consider his teaching strategies are leaned more on abstract elements, but such argument would only be valid when one would provide tangible evidence of getting better results by ignoring the intangible factors of human development, such as, ethics, morality, love, faith, trust, understanding and so on.

On the other hand, many noted researchers work (Deci, 1975 Rosenthal, 1986 Dennet, 1990, 1991) on the efficacy of such elements clearly consolidate the concept of multiple intelligence of Gardner, where they provide evidences on the efficacy of intrinsic motivation in creating long-term impact on human development. Gardner saw this issue from another plane in TDM, as he correlated the process of pursuing in-depth knowledge and understanding with intrinsic motivation.

Otherwise Gardner would not have said that each child is already perfect at the level of its potential and it is the task of the adults to help children manifest that potential. This vision of Gardner matches with another visionary, Swami Vivekananda of the past, who said Education is the manifestation of perfection, which is already in man (Swami, 2009).

Modern research on human brain too provides evidence that human brains are conditioned to apply various ways to processes all information, besides recording its responses in the areas that it considers appropriate to maintain and use. This natural selection varies from person to person and thus such differences in the choice of learning takes place. Such state of affairs amply support the notion that identifying such areas in humans and to encourage each brains tendency of recording all experiences could be a way to systematically develop each human by enabling them to store more information for use.

Some might argue that Gardner would have done better, had he emphasized on the issue of brain coherence in learning, as the modern research also speaks about the ability of the brain also assembles various information from many parts of it as and when required.

However, such argument does not offer much, since Gardner never overtly explained such intelligences as something compartmentalized elements, and instead advocated a process of learning that would apply all forces of human mind. Thus in a way the book fairly indicate that the conventional classroom teaching can easily adopt many techniques that would facilitate the children to utilize more types of intelligence.
The rising popularity of play-based or music-oriented teaching curriculum already proves that Gardners concept carries huge potential in the sphere of child development. For example Gardner too advocates utilizing strong emotional component in learning, and music appears to provide that, as well as a natural scene like a mother animal feeding her baby.

The book also serves as an eye-opener to the reasons why some children fail to do well under traditional classroom teaching environment, by showing that it is the failure of the learning system that ignores the multidimensional process of learning. For example, the book shows how conventional classroom teaching can seriously hamper by ignoring a childs ability to learn through bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, which required some music and a little space to dance instead of notebook and dictation. Alongside, it also highlights the need of enhancing the abilities of the teachers to identify the dominance of one or the other intelligence in children and to guide them in an appropriate manner.

TDM also generates the possibility of combining the usage of all nine intelligences at elementary stage of learning to identify each childs choice of learning avenues, and then they may be grouped separately in the higher level of learning where the system would encourage exploring the world of truth, beauty and goodness on their own chosen track. At least TDM makes this proposition as plausible at the moment, which makes it mark in the sphere of learning.

The book in fact reflects a wonderful confluence of several other views, where Gardner weaves them to drive his point home, that cognition involves all possible mental processes and can be termed as the experience of knowing, which differs from the experience of feeling or willing. In the process of explaining the above Gardner exploits the Darwinism, Mozart-magic, or even holocaust, which might provide some jerk to the conventional propagators of education.

From this perspective the book could also be earmarked as a reincarnation of Platos classical works in a neoclassical format, where Gardner (1991) intends to structure the human capacities to know truth, to love beauty and to will goodness. From another point of view, TDM advocates almost a Socratic style of teaching where there was no book to cram and parrot later to collect some digits as the proof of ones ability, merit and assurance for future benefits. Instead, the system would invoke questions in the minds of the learner and challenge them to probe and find the answer.

Therefore, it can be said that the inherent qualities of humans and the efficacy of self-sufficient exploration to know the truth, beauty and goodness, have fuelled Gardners own exploration on finding the best way of learning. Consequently, TDM stands to be a book that frames all what the thinkers of yesteryears deeply felt and envisioned, and suggests exploiting them in a cohesive and cogent manner.

Linguistics covers a wide range of different approaches and fields of studies such as phonetics, phonology, morphology, semantics, pragmatics, syntax, genre, register, speech acts, turn taking management and many more. These analytical procedures and concepts are the determining factors in the development of a particular language.

This paper tries to make a critical linguistic language analysis in terms of speech act and turn taking management. These two are considered as one of the most important aspects of language analysis in linguistics. Speech act refers to a technical term that deals on the successful communication act of the participants in the communication model (Searle 1999). Turn taking management, on the other hand, refers to the process of successfully taking ones turn in the communication paradigm (Tannen 1993 as cited in Mayers 2008).

Both of these aspects are essential for the successful realization of the conversations and dialogues in the communication model. Hence, there must be an in-depth understanding on these linguistics components to make a great analysis on a particular language.

Contributions of Speech Act and Turn Taking in Linguistics Analytical Approach
   
In our everyday life, people are speaking language which is tantamount to performing speech acts which include making statements, giving commands, asking questions, making promises, and the like (Searle 1999). These statements have something to do with the linguistics term speech acts. Through the use of speech act, people will communicate clearly and effectively with the other people. Hence, there must be a good understanding in this concept so that there would be an effective conversation or dialogue for a successful communication paradigm.  

In the speech act analysis, there will be explanation on the recorded conversations from the speakers who use English as a second language. The data were secretly gathered from the chosen subjects so that there would be continuous and natural conversations between the participants.  

Meanwhile, whenever people talk to each other, they are establishing and sustaining a little world of shared attention and participation (Dhondt, et. al.). Thus, there should be a strict observance of the process called turn taking. Turn taking is an indispensable tool in a successful conversation between the speaker and the receiver in a communication model. Through this process, there is an assurance of smooth rhythm and exchange of ideas in the topic of the communication process. Likewise, in the process of turn taking, there are several considerations such as the gender, educational background, cultural orientation and the like. These are to be taken into consideration in order to achieve a good communication process.

In the turn taking analysis, there will be an attempt to provide explanation and discussion on the role of turn taking in the environment of speakers who use English as their second language. The data for this analysis were gathered through a listening and recording form the conversation of the people who use English as a second language. The pedagogical implications of the tole of turn taking in the communication will be analyzed and discussed in a detailed manner. And also, the reasons of communication barriers due to the failure on turn taking will be identified through the data which will be analyzed and interpreted.

Speech Act and its Roles in Linguistics Analysis

Speaking a language means engaging in a rule-governed form of behavior. This explains that talking is performing acts according to pre-set rules. In a conversation, therefore, speech act is very essential as such it also determines good and successful communication  model (Searle 1999).

When people are communicating with others, they are giving different context in their sentences. For instance, people may assert, question, command, remark, warn, criticize and others in their statements and these are regarded as illocutionary acts. Proper speech acts will help in the clear meaning and context of a sentence in s conversation. A good example to exemplify this is the different way of utterance of a given sentence. In telling a statement, a person may say Sam smokes habitually. However, people may inquire by saying Does Sam smoke or would that Sam Smoked habitually,  and may express strong feeling by uttering Sam, smoke habitually Searle (1999) asserts that

In the utterance of any of these four sentences in the example a speaker is characteristically performing at least three distinct kinds of acts. (a) The uttering words (morphemes, sentences) (b) referring and predicting (c) stating, questioning, commanding, promising, etc  (p. 23).

As seen in the context of the given sentences, a sentence can be spoken in different ways with different meanings. Hence, in the communication process, it is important to observe speech act so that the clarity and logicalness of the messages in the dialogues are highly observed and maintained.

Furthermore, speech act also include criticisms, invitations, greetings, congratulations and other acts that express meanings from the speaker to the listener. These are indeed essential so that there will be clear and logical meanings and contexts in a conversation in the communication model.

Turn Taking and its Role in the Communication Model

Cooperation and smooth turn taking among the participants which allow them to make progress in the development of the topic characterized a good communication model. Poor communication, on the other hand, lacks a smooth rhythm and smooth exchange of turns which results to a problematic exchange of ideas and topics in the communication of the participants (Tannen 1993 as cited in Mayers 2008). To make a smooth flowing conversation,  turn taking is the determining factor which is considered as an essential part of the communication process for it allows the speaker and the receiver to have good avenue of exchanging their thoughts and ideas with regards to the topic that they talking about.

Moreover, communication is said to be generally characterized by turn taking (Levinson, 1983). Accurate timing and minimal amount of overlap should always be observed so that the success of a good conversation will be attained. With this consideration, turn taking can be also considered as a local management system for there should be a systematic management between the participants of the conversation so that the effectiveness of the communication process will not be at stake.

In the process of turn taking, in addition, there are some considerations that should be maintained so that turn taking management will be effective in keeping the conversation logical, clear and smooth flowing. The first thing that the participants should consider is the diversity in the cultural backgrounds of the people in the communication model. People should always consider that different cultural backgrounds come into contact in the communication. Thus, the flow of the communication may be disturbed since assumptions of what each considers polite, cooperative and appropriate linguistic behavior might be different (Malam, 1996). As the cultural background may differ from one place to another, the participants in the communication should always bear in mind the restrictions and limitations that a culture may possess (Mayer, 2008). For instance, in some countries before, the women are not given a chance to speak with the other people or they are given the opportunity to talk in a conversation of a group of men. Furthermore, in some countries which have  monarchical system of government, the layman are not allowed to directly speak with the royal blood. These are some examples of the considerations with regards to the cultural differences. And these considerations should be given utmost value so that there will be an assurance of an effective and efficient turn taking in the communication model.

However, not only the diversity in cultural background should be taken account for but also the gender of the elements included in the model. Being aware of the gender-based differences in turn taking and understanding them can eventually reduce cases of miscommunication and frustration ( Gebhardt, 2008). Since gender is a very sensitive issue nowadays specifically with regards to equality and sensitivity, it should be given ample attention on the turn taking process during the communication process. For instance, if we will consider what society dictates about being a gentleman, the male speaker will most likely to give special consideration in the turn taking process of the female participant. The male is expected to become polite and considerate especially when the person he is taking to is a female. Likewise, along with the consideration of the gender is also the importance of age in the elements or participants of the conversation (Malam, 1996). Age should be given also with utmost consideration as such the young ones should show gesture of politeness to the adults especially during formal conversations. If the male reserves courtesy to the female, then, the young should exhibit politeness to the old.

Likewise, in the conversation process, the non verbal gestures and cues should be given importance as such they are also determiners of the turn taking process (LaFrance, 1974).  Sometimes, these non verbal gestures and cues suggest the speaker to stop in the talking as the receiver would like to take his turn or put the topic into halt. The feelings and understandings of both the speaker and the receiver should be also consider so that the exchange of the ideas will be smooth sailing (Dae, 2003).  

In order to analyze the turn taking process in the communication model, it is important to have the deep understanding on the turn taking model (Sacks et. al. 1974 as cited in Lee 1979). The first rule in this model is the first transition relevance place (TRP) in every turn in the conversation. This means that  after the speech of the speaker, he needs to stop to give way to the receiver who will become the next speaker in the communication process and so that this next speaker can respond or give answer to the message of the first speaker. However, when the first speaker did not select the next speaker among the receiver or if the message of the first speaker did not directly address to someone, anyone in the group can talk and assume the post of being the next speaker. But if no one responds among the group, the first or the original speaker can select who will be the next speaker or he can address directly his message to someone so that there would be someone who will become the next speaker.

These rules on the turn taking model are indeed applicable in the everyday conversation of the people. The first speaker is the one who selects the next speaker among the receivers or the members of the group by directly addressing the message to that someone. However, if the message is for everybody, the members of the group can decide who will be the next speaker. But when no one responds on the last message by the speaker, that speaker should directly address or call the attention of someone so that there would be next speaker.  

Critical Analysis of the Recorded Conversations in terms of Speech Act and Turn Taking Management

The following transcript is based on a recorded conversational exchange between the participants in the communication model. In Sample 1, it is a conversation between Martha and Mark. Mark would like to talk to the husband of Martha that is why he called on a telephone. In Sample 2, Joeffrey and James are conversing to each other as they are getting to know each other.  In Sample 3, a man is talking to the woman about the quitting of the womans husband to drinking alcohol. The real names of the chosen subject for this analysis were hidden for the protection and privacy of these people. In sample 4, it is a conversation between parents about their children.

Sample 1

Martha Hello Good morning.
Martha Uhmmm...
(0.3)
Someone (interruption in a soft voice) Hello
Martha Martha, speaking.
Mark Its Mark Clemence. Can I speak to your husband...please
Martha Sure. I just get him.
Mark Oh, just go and get him. Thanks.

In the above transcription from a recorded conversation, the Transition Relevance Place (TRP) became problematic as the first speaker failed to mention a clear and continuous conversation with the receiver of the message. Martha is speaking very slow as she is experiencing problem in the facility of the English language because it is her second language. There is a 0.3 gap before the response of the next speaker because he thought that Martha has something to say more. Because of this, problem on turn taking has occurred in the conversation and resulted to a gap in the process. Likewise, since the subject of the analysis uses English as second language, it should be expected that the subject has no good facility of the language. Hence, there would be gaps, barriers and difficulties with regards to the continuity of the conversation as well as with the structure of the sentence and pronunciation of the words. For instance, in line 7, Martha failed to properly pronounce the words sure and get. During the recording of the conversation, it seems that the chosen subject has spoken different word which is very far from the original message or context that she wants to say. This has something to do with the uttering of words aspect of the speech act. If the words are not clearly spoken, there would be different meaning or context that will be built in the mind of the listener.  

Sample 2

Joeffrey Hello
James Hi My name is James.
Joeffrey Hi Im Joeffrey.
(0.7)
James Hello Joeffrey. Please to meet you...
Joeffrey Nice to meet you too.

In the above transcription about the conversation of James and Joeffrey, there is a great failure on the transition relevance place (TRP) as such the next speaker failed to react on the posted message by the first speaker. This very long pause in the conversation was reflected in line 4 with 0.7 gap.  Likewise, during the recording of the conversation, James found it difficult to communicate with Joeffrey. This has something to do with the background of James as a second speaker of the English language. Since English is not the mother tongue of the chosen subject, it is expected that the speaker has no good facility in the use of the language. Furthermore, the subject is also encountering dilemma on his morphological and phonological abilities with regards to the use of the English language. As seen in line 5, James failed to properly pronounce the word please.  

Sample  3

Man Does your husband drink alcohol
Woman Yes.
Man Okay...
Woman (Takes the turn quickly) No he... No he quit. No he quits d-drinking.
Man Okay. So why did he quit drinking alcohol
Someone (Interrupts and takes the turn at the middle of conversation) He kiss me.
Man (overlap with the interruption of that someone) Why Why quit drinking
Woman Why quit
Someone (Interrupts) Why
Woman Because it is too bad to... for hearts.

In the above transcription, the perfect example of violating the rules of the turn taking process in the communication model has occurred. First, there is no proper turn taking in the conversation as the participants committed overlapping in most of the conversations. As seen in line 3 and 4, the woman did not give the man the chance to speak in response to her message. The woman quickly grabbed the turn to correct her mistake in her first response to the question of the man. The man is asking if the womans husband is smoking. The woman first answered yes but changed it and snatched the turn to the man to speak. This is against the rule of turn taking in the conversation.

A good communication should have a good way of turn taking so that the communication will become clear and efficient (Tannen 1993 as cited in Mayers 2008). Nevertheless, since the woman grabbed the turn of the man, there was no turn taking that took place in the communication model. In addition, in reference to line 6, someone interrupted the exchanging of messages in the conversation.  This is again against the rule of the turn taking model. That someone has no right in the turn as such what she said was not relevant to the topic being discussed in the conversation.

Likewise, it is not ethical to talk or give comment to the conversation of the other people in which she does belong in the topic of the conversation. This clearly violate the rules of the turn taking about the cultural and personal background of the participants. On the same manner, based on the voice recorded on the tape, that someone who interrupted in the conversation should not talk as such the dialogue was intended only for the speaker and the receiver. The question is directly addressed to the woman.

Moreover, in lines 3 and 4, the conversation became noisy because of the improper turn taking. The woman just talked without even considering that the man was not yet finished on his turn. This shows that turn taking is indeed important in a clear and organized communication.  In this line also, the woman, who is the subject of analysis, committed errors in phonological and syntactical aspects of the language as reflected when she pronounced the word quit and used an incomplete sentence.

In lines 8, 9 and 10, a dilemma was also experienced with regards to the turn taking of the participants of the dialogue as well as with the pronunciation of the subject with some words. Likewise, another intruder took the turn by saying why while the man is asking the woman about her husband. This somehow caused delay on the response of the woman as such she was disturbed by the unnecessary interference. This resulted to the delay on the process of exchanging ideas or messages in the communication model.

Sample 4

1. Mother 1 Hi Ive learned from my son that your son is smoking.
2. Mother 2 Your son is smoking
3. Mother 3 My son is smoking I cant believe that

In the above conversation, it can be clearly seen the difference of the contexts or meanings of a sentence based on the speech act that the speaker will commit. The first sentence from mother 1 is merely giving a statement. This means that the context of the sentence can be merely associated to asserting, giving facts or giving statement. The second sentence, on the other hand, is asking question. Though the second sentence has the same structure as of the first one, they have different context because of the different speech act of the respective speakers. The third sentence, furthermore, is relatively different with the first two sentences although they have somehow the same structure because the third one is implicating string emotion.  This is actually the response of  Mother 3 to the statement of Mother 1. This implies strong emotion as the mother of the son who is learned by another mother to be smoking while in the school.

Recommendations and Conclusion Based on the Linguistics Approach

It is indeed that speech act and turn taking management are essential tools of the successful communication model. The participants of the conversation should always consider that good speech act and turn taking process result to good communication model. This helps the conversation to become smooth and clear on both part of the speaker and the receiver. More so, in turn taking, there are also considerations that we need to put into account such as the age, sex differences, cultural and personal background. These are not to be taken for granted whenever we are going to take turns in the conversations or dialogues.  

In addition, in order to maintain proper speech act and turn taking management in a conversation, based on the analysis of the recorded conversation., people should consider the following
Ability to know how to bring up initial topics. When the speaker has the ability to create and initiate initial topic for the conversation, there would be no gaps and barriers in the exchanges of lines or dialogues. This means that there would be successful communication model if the participants of the communication have the ability to initiate topic that will be discussed in the conversation.

Good skill in developing topic in conversation. Usually, the reason of barriers and gaps in the conversation is the lack of the ability to think of the topic that will be talked about in the conversation. If the participants in the conversation have spontaneity in the thinking of possible topics for the dialogues in the conversation or communication, there will be no gaps. Likewise, there will be no problem also in the TRP because all the participants will have the clue on to when they will grab their turn in the communication process.

Ability on proper switching of topics in a conversation. Proper timing in the switching of new topic in the conversation will make the flow of the communication smooth and logical. If one of the participants will insert new topic within the conversation in a wrong timing, there will be chance that barriers will interfere the smooth flow of the conversation. Likewise, the TRP of the turn taking management will also be affected as such the participants will have confusion on their turn in the conversation due to the new topic.

Proper knowledge on bringing a new topic as an extension of the previous one. This has something to do with the consistency and coherence of the flow of the topic in the communication model. Just like writing, conversation should also be coherent and consistent to attain successful exchanging of meanings and dialogues. This will be attained if the participants of the conversation are able to connect all the topics successfully.

Proper opening and closing of the conversation. This aspect has something to do with both speech act and turn taking management. Proper opening in the conversation like greetings can make a big difference in the successful conversation.  The same holds true with the closing remarks in the conversation. This will be realized only if there is also proper turn taking in the participants of the conversation.

This semester, my course in Growth and Development of Young Children has facilitated my understanding in the subject area of child development. Through our comprehensive readings and educational class discussions ranging from theorists, developmental domains, family and culture, typical and atypical development, assessmentsobservations to current social issues, I was able to gain knowledge and skills that are essential for my personal as well as professional growth.

Theories-  I really enjoyed learning about all the theories involving the stages of child development. I have learned that there are many and varying factors that affect a child s personality and cognitive behavior. Also, I have discovered that every child differs developmentally, individually, linguistically and culturally. Because of this idea, I believe that there is no single correct or incorrect theory but more of a combination of the principles of each of the theorists such as Freud, Erickson, Piaget and Vygotsky.

- Freud (Psychoanalytic theoryPsychosexual theory) suggested that our personalities  emerge at periods of development through biological systems, primarily the mouth, the anus, and the sex organs  (Puckett, 2009, p. 12). When conflicts between these early sources are not resolved, one may become fixated at a particular stage of development.

- Erikson (Psychosocial theory), expanding on Freud s theories, suggested that it is social desires that influence behavior more compared to sexual drives (Puckett, 2009, p. 12).

- Piaget (CognitiveConstructivism theory), suggested that children construct their own theories of their world around them by assimilating new information into their existing knowledge (schemata) or by accommodating  (adjusting) to new information (Puckett, 2009, pp.15-16).

- Vygotsky (Socioculture Theory), expanding on Piaget s theory suggested that culture and social interactions guide cognitive behavior children s social interactions with more skilled adults and peers are essential in advancing cognitive development (Puckett, 2009, p.16). I also found Urie Bronfenbrenner s Biological system theory to be very interesting. He argued that the development of a child is greatly influenced by hisher environment and himselfherself (i.e. intrafamilial affected by extrafamilial). He has identified four essential environmental systems of influence that hold certain roles, norms and rules which are the following (1) Microsystem refers to how a child acts or reacts to its immediate setting where heshe lives (family, schooldaycare, neighborhood, and friends) that greatly affect hisher growth (2) Mesosystem is the relationship between the various areas of the child s microenvironment and how it affects hisher growth (parent s and schooldaycare instinct with each other) (3) Exosystem refers to the external factors that indirectly affects development (parents employmentjob security) whether negatively or positively and (4) Macrosystem is the largest and the most remote set of people and things to a child but has still a great influence over a child (Puckett, 2009, pp16-17).

Areas of Development-   By understanding the various styles that are involved in learning amongst children, adults can have the opportunity to encourage and increase a child s engagement, curiosity, creativity, independence, cooperation and persistence. There are three developmental domains which are (1) Socialemotional which is associated with socialization, self-confidence and sense of well-being (2) Physicalmotor that refers to the development of body, development of largegross motor and smallfine motor skills and (3) Cognitivelanguageliteracy which involves the mind and show how the mind works, problem solving skills, cause and effect and communication through language and writing. It is important to remember that each area of development is interdependent with each other and each child develops at hisher own pace which means that heshe must not be rushed. In other words, one must master first the skill set for hisher appropriate age group. Because of this, I have become engrossed with reading the chapters detailing the progression of development in Puckett. Also, building attachments, specifically with a primary caregiver is crucial in influencing the infants optimal development of relationships, gaining coping skills, ability to trust and formation of hisher personalitytemperament. As infants learn to trust, they begin to develop social recognition-associating behaviors to responses of individuals.

Typical and Atypical Development-    Children s development of certain skills and abilities usually follows a predictable course-developmental milestone, such as crawling, grasping, walking, etc. However, not all children reach each milestone at the same time, or in the expected time-frame for reaching these developmental markers. An eye for details is needed in order to distinguish between skills that are slow in development and those that are different in quality, form and function. In line with this, our atypical assignment was very enlightening. I realized that as educators, we must make it our goal to advocate for the proper diagnoses and treatment of these developmental delays.

Family, Culture and Community-    Parentscaregivers (i.e. family of origin) are a child s most important. Development and learning are rooted in culture and are supported by the family wherein language, knowledge, traditions and family expectations are the primary influences in development. Therefore, having a respectful and reciprocal relationship between family and community is imperative for the well being of a child. Having my FrenchHaitian background accepted and honored by other people, this has contributed in my positive development as an individual. As a result,  I never really felt like an outsider or  that I did not belong.

Studies, Assessments and Observations -The rate of development and learning varies for every child. Children with differing abilities and talents who may or at risk for developmental delays may require special attention and adaptations in order to support their unique needs. Therefore, continuous studies, observations and assessments are needed in order to promote developmentally appropriate practices and to provide learning opportunities, activities and environments. These studies, assessments and observations range from formal to informal and are objective (free of biases), reliable (accurate, consistent and non-contradictory) and replicable (the same results will be obtained by different evaluators-credible). Moreover, I find the field assignment to be every enlightening because I had the chance to observe and witness first hand interesting child development cases.

Current social issues-    Incorporating a political point of view was also very intriguing and challenging. I enjoyed the video on multiculturalism in ECE Preschool in Three Cultures. This aided me in seeing the cultural differences between the Japanese, Chinese and Americans from twenty years ago and the present which have reinforced the differences in ideology of childhood education of varying cultures and different time lines.

Conclusion- I started this class filled with enthusiasm and an intense desire to be an effective early childhood educator (K). Now that I have completed this course, I believe that I have gained enough knowledge and skills that would help me in generating my own style of teaching. Aside from this, I intended to be a fervent advocate in creating awareness regarding the wellness of a child.

Around the world, the youth population is considered as one of the most vulnerable population because they are more often at high risks of being involved in problems and difficulties that relate to health, family, academic, work, and personal affairs. One of the sources of the youth problems and difficulties is their negative behaviours. Among the negative behaviours observed with youths are physical and sexual abuse, substance abuse and drug dealing, school leaving (drop-out and exit), and crime and violence (World Bank 2003 27-28). Other sources of youth problems and difficulties include poverty, sociocultural and neighbourhood characteristics, media, family and peer groups influence, and the prevalence of illegal substances such as drugs and alcohol (Reppucci, Fried and Schmidt 2002 5-10).

To address the problems and difficulties being experienced by the vulnerable young population, many youth programmes have been implemented which are aimed to cater to the needs of the youth population and to uplift their poor and often oppressive condition. Numerous youth work policies were designed globally to encourage youths active citizenship, life-long learning, social inclusion and adherence to community safety. In spite of these efforts, a great number of youth related problems still continuously flood our society. Presently, many youths rarely see themselves as an important part of our society because often-times, their participation and integration rights are few and their voices are unheard (Barry 20041). It only follows that despite their large number, many youth work organizations continues to face critical problems concerning leadership and management of the vulnerable young population. They still lack the capability of addressing the problems related to youth wellness, youth crime, youth justice, and youth policy.

Confronting Youth ProblemsThe Effective Leadership and Management Styles
Two of the most critical problems relating to youth work reside on the failure of the government and other concerned youth organizations to create important youth policies and the lack of financial and other resources that will aid to the implementation of important youth programmes. Although there exist many youth development programs, it is observed that our society still lacks youth policies that relate to equality, anti-oppression, diversity and inclusion and on providing appropriate funding to youth development programmes (Harrison, Benjamin, Curran and Hunter 200776).

Every Child Matters and Performance Management
One of the many attempts to address the increasing youth problems is the publication of Every Child Matters (ECM). ECM requires all youth services to be part of integrated services for children and youths. The five key outcomes of ECM include health, safety, enjoyment and achievement, positive contribution and economic well-being of the children and the young people (Cockburn and Handscomb 200624 and 95). In line with this, managers come to face challenges that include ensuring that their services are integrated with the ECM outcomes facing the challenges of the government guidance regarding commissioning services and delivering social and personal education achieving value performance for the contribution of the youths to the community contributing to the growing number of corporate plans and strategies and managing the reorganisation of services to create local integrated provision for young people (Harrison, Benjamin, Curran, and Hunter 200775-76).

Indeed, it is very hard for any youth organisation to lead and manage anti-oppressive practice especially when it comes to providing services. However, the key to develop and maintain good anti-oppressive practice is performance management whereas the managers together with the organisations members build plans,monitor progress and evaluate achievements on a regular basis. In measuring the overall performance of an authority, it is best to use the ECMs Best Value Performance Indicators where one of the indicator is that  any event or outcome that concerns the youth has a direct relationship with the assessment of the overall performance of the authority (Harrison, Benjamin, Curran, and Hunter 200776). Thus, with this measurement, it is always important that the leader or manager addresses youth problems related to equality, diversity and inclusion. In addition, multi-agency collaboration is also an important aspect of ECM as through this initiative, the youth organisation is able to get the needed support and resources  like  funding, staff and training, and equipment, and achieve the desirable outcomes (Harrison, Benjamin, Curran, and Hunter 200776). Often, youth organisations get most resources and funds from the government, concerned organisations and private individuals. Funds are used to finance different youth services such as food, health, education and different outreach and developmental programmes such as entertainment and recreational activities. To generate funding, most youth organisations rely on donations, sponsorships and government fund allocation. Furthermore,another important resources in youth organisation are staff and training as youths need coaches and experiences that will guide them toward development. More often, staffs are made up of volunteers who desire to contribute to the achievement of the organisations goal.

The Resonant leadership Styles for Youth Management
Goleman, Boyatzis and McKee in 2002 have described six leadership styles which they categorized as either resonant or dissonant styles (Chism 200943). Resonant styles of leadership foster the group members to feel a sense of belongingnes and security to each other and reflect the leaders enthusiasm. These types of leadership that include affiliative, coaching, democratic and authoritative leadership are common to emotionally intelligent leaders. On the other hand, dissonant styles, which include pacesetting and coercive leaderships, foster lack of harmony, high expectations and controlling behaviours (Chism 200943).

In youth work as well as in other community works, the different resonant styles of leadership are interchangeably being used to encourage and ensure members participation, inclusion, equality and security. On dealing with vulnerable young population, managers are expected to be democratic, authoritative, affiliative, andor supportive to youths. It is important to note that in order to achieve youth development, managers must first build certain relationships with the diverse youths. Any resonant style of leadership can be employed as each style requires leaders or managers to build relationship, empower and support other people, especially the vulnerable ones. The same types of leaderships are also being carried when dealing with other institutions andor agencies especially when the manager or the organisation is trying to get supports and resources through partnerships (Peterson 200465).

The Seven S in the Youth Organisation
Another important theory used in youth work is McKinseys 7s Framework for it is usable in facilitating changes. The seven  S stand for (1) strategy (2) shared values (3) style (4) structure (5) systems (6) skills and (7) staff (Blair and Meadows 199628-29). To deliver services and produce positive outcomes relating to the development and improvement of the youths, youth organisations are inclined to use structures and systems that facilitate a rapid response to the needs of the young population. The structure should be aligned with the goals - mission and vision - of the organisation which aim to address the numerous problems of the youths. Moreover, the staffs are chosen depending on their skills and shared values that are also aligned with the organisations objectives and rationale for existence. Meanwhile, the youth organisation system is concerned on the procedures and routine flows of information, on ways of managing and using available resources the technologies, and on leading, managing, and rewarding the organisations staffs. Staffs of the youth organisation are motivated to use their appropriate skills and values that give importance to youth needs, services and development and attempts to address the problems and difficulties of the vulnerable young population. And finally, the leadership or management styles that are suited in any youth organisation are that of facilitator and coach rather than coercive and  pacesetting style (Blair and Meadows 199628).

The Need for Transactional Leaders
Contemporary theorists often differentiate leaders and managers. But for Blagg and Young (qtd. McKimm and Phillips 20096) the most effective leaders are those who manifest both leadership and managerial skills, thus, a transactional leader. To further illustrate, upon creating the agenda, a transactional leader is keen on planning and budgeting and in establishing the organisations direction. He ensures that there is a detailed plan and appropriate budget, time, capital and resources that are made available in order to produce the expected results. In developing the organisations human resources, a transactional leader does the organising and staffing and aligning. He analyses the type of individual best that fits each job and considers what part of the plan fits each individual. He also communicates goals, seek commitments from human resources and build teams and coalitions. Upon executing the plan, transactional leader manifests controlling and problem solving skills. He is good in monitoring results, identifying deviations from the plan and solving problems. He also motivates and inspires everyone. Thus, the outcomes come with a sense of predictability and order. Furthermore, Blagg and Young further emphasised that, Leaders must pick causes they wont abandon easily, remain committed despite setbacks, and communicate their big ideas over and over again in every counter (qtd. Shavinina 2003827).

Youth organisation is made up of different groups and individuals and is always involved in collaborative partnerships with government and agencies and organisations. Since funding and policy are often the sources of problems and issues of many youth organisations, it is only advisable that they should have transactional leaders who posses both leadership and management skills. Such skills would enable the leaders to appropriately deal with diverse group of youths, with government entities and with private individuals. In addition, transactional leaders would aid the youth organisation in solving their funding and policy problems as they are more committed to the cause and can easily communicate their ideas to other people or entities.

The Role of Government in Youth Work
Too often, the public sector is portrayed as inefficient, wasteful and unwilling to embrace change, with slow and cumbersome bureaucratic structures. As Pollitt (200332) noted, the public sector is like a dinosaur, too big, too slow-moving, too insensitive, insufficiently adaptable, and seriously underpowered as far as brains are concerned. To solve this problem, the public sector is encouraged to commit themselves to managerialism whereas management function is separated from organisational function progress is seen in terms of productivity increased productivity comes from using information and organisational technologies measurement and qualification are increased customer orientation is central and boundaries between the public, private and voluntary sectors are blurred (Pollit 2003). The governments most important roles in youth work rest on creating sound policies that effectively address the many difficulties and problems of youth and providing financial resources and other support services to youth organisations.

It is a known fact that many young populations continue to experience problems that are related to their negative behaviours and to the detrimental outcomes of their actions. As youths are considered as an important part of the society, it is only proper that their problems and difficulties are addressed. Youth workers play an important role in assisting and helping the young population to meet their needs and help them develop into functioning and competitive individuals. To become effective in leading and managing the young population, youth workers need to be aware of different issues and concerns that affect the youths and their locality. The most important objective of a youth worker is to satisfy the needs of the youths and address the difficulties and problems that they encounter. Youth workers should also be competent in influencing government support in creating and implementing favourable policies that would address various issues concerning the vulnerable youth population and in getting the needed supports (e.g. financial, staff and training and equipment). The youth workers must also encourage community participation by working collaboratively with community members, organisations, and agencies. Indeed, the role of a youth worker is not solely on leading and managing the youths but it extends to working collaboratively with other institutions, organisations, agencies and private individuals so that they will be able to get the needed supports and resources that will be used in providing the needed services of the young population.

I. Multiple Intelligence

A. Full description of multiple intelligence and its parts

The multiple intelligence theory, as conceptualized by Gardner, pertains to the presence of eight distinct intelligences that may be triggered depending upon the situation as well as the cultural context of an individual the eight intelligences, which may be considered as the core parts of such a theory, include the following intelligences   linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic (Viens and Kallenbach, 2004). In this sense, the theory considers the possibility that intelligence is not merely limited to a certain aspect, and may in fact be applied differently according to the needs as well as capabilities of the individual.

B. How is it different from the psychometric approach (IQ test)

In contrast to the IQ test or the psychometric approach, the multiple intelligences theory takes into account the aspects of intelligence that one may not easily measure through numerical approaches (Viens and Kallenbach, 2004). Of course, taking into consideration the multiple facets of intelligence as emphasized through the theory, then such measures which are applied to characterize intelligence as a whole would be invalidated if such a theory is applied. In addition, it is also evident that the psychometric approach only considers intelligence through a generalized or a singular sense (Viens and Kallenbach, 2004).

C. Your evaluation of the contemporary theory and its use

Of course, the multiple intelligence theory would be a most fair and appropriate basis for evaluation of students throughout educational facilities for it takes into account the differences and possible specializations of each child. To further expound, IQ tests may actually be considered as an unfair measure for the assessment of the relative skill of students. The multiple intelligence theory on the other hand, differentiates students but does not discriminate since in essence it categorizes the students according to the key intelligence expressed which may in fact be more appropriately termed as talent. The problem with such though is that due to the lack of a quantitative aspect, analysis may be affected by biases.    

II. Zone of Proximal Development

A. Describe the zone of proximal developments concept or idea to show your understanding
     of it (Be detailed and specific)

The zone of proximal development is a concept that pertains to the idea that both external and social experiences contribute to the formative development of the mental aspects and processes of a child (Wood, 2003). In relation to such, such a concept emphasizes that learning does not occur throughout a single process or source. As a matter of fact, Vygotsky, the individual who coined such a concept, highlights the fact that a learning process occurs through the improvement of both task specific skills and reasoning in general (Wood, 2003). In this sense, specific notions regarding the role of assisted and unassisted learning may be developed. For one, although in part the concept of the zone of promixal development emphasizes the significance of assistance given by adults towards children throughout their activities in terms of proper guidance and keeping the goal in mind (Wood, 2003), the concept also points out the occurrence of an internal learning process, regarding the improvement of mental processes, is positively affected through such pursuits.

B. Describe how you will specifically apply what you learned (the specific idea you
     described) in your future (future courses, career, or life in general)

Given that one of most important points that one may gain an understanding of through the assessment of the concept of the zone of proximal development, is that the act of adult guidance furthers internal learning processes of a child as well. Then, in future events wherein a chance to teach or to simply take care of a child I would apply keep in mind the importance of providing proper guidance. In this sense, in every activity I would place emphasis and effort on explaining the general concept of the activity as well as the rationale behind each component or step done. Of course though, I would not explain such through complex means and would make sure that every explanation given would be completely understandable in relation to the childs comprehension. As a matter of fact, such guidance throughout activities are known to complement the rationalization process that occurs within the mind of the child, and thus further augments and improves the overall learning process  (Wood, 2003).      

III. Overlapping Waves Theory

A. Explain how the Siegler and Shipleys strategy choice model connects with the
Overlapping Waves Theory.

While both may pertain to learning in a different sense, it is also evident that  both expresses the presence of occurrences regarding differences and modifications in mental processes, especially in terms of the approach of how such processes are applied. To further expound, while the Siegler and Shipleys Strategy Choice Model as a whole may emphasize the presence differences in thinking due to variations in strategies applied (Siegler, 1996), the Overlapping Waves Theory on the other hand considers the presence of such differences as a core assumption or basis of the theory (Desforges and Fox, 2002).        

B. Define in solving problem what recalled and backup strategies are. Provide examples.

In problem solving backup strategies are simply regarded as strategies that are considered and yet are not from past experiences or memory, recalled strategies on the other hand pertain to the fact that such are based upon reflections of the past (Friedman and Scholnick, 1997). For example, in opening a jar, a child has seen his mother use a gripping aid so as to open the jar easily, which the child did the same upon attempting to open a jar. The previously given scenario is an example of a recalled strategy. In relation to the scenario, if the child failed to make such a strategy or attempt work, then instead he would hit the jar with another object or try to use other opening aids. The aforementioned scenario may then be considered as a manifestation of backup strategies.

C. Identify the 2 main criteria, speed and accuracy, that strategy choice is based upon and
explain the connection between the strategies and these criteria.

Speed in general may easily be represented by the amount of time required in completing a task, while on the other hand accuracy pertains to the correctness of the product of the pursuit. Strategy choice is thus affected by differences in terms of the relative importance of focusing upon either speed and accuracy in a task. For example, if time pressure is present then it may be assumed that speed would become as a main criteria for strategy selection for tasks wherein the outcome is evaluated through quality, such as drawing or coloring, then it may also be assumed that accuracy would be the prime criteria for strategy choice.

D. Draw out the graph depicting the process of strategy choice, label each axis, label the
curve, and the confidence criterion   describe each component.

From the figure above, which is based upon the Overlapping Waves Theory, one may see that throughout age progression the process of strategy selection changes as well. Hence, age is among the main aspect that has direct effects upon the act of strategy selection. Another component would of course be the frequency of use. In addition to such, it is also evident from the curve that initial strategies developed may be applied throughout age progression but may decline in terms of frequency. Also, newer strategies are developed and chosen as well throughout later phases as well.

E. Describe the difference among  Good Students   Perfectionists  and  Not-So-Good
Students

Good students, perfectionists, and not-so-good students may be differentiated in terms of the strategy applied given a certain challenge. From a study conducted, it has been determined that not-so-good students are lacking in both the speed and accuracy for both recalled and backup strategies good students and perfectionists are rather similar in terms of speed and accuracy of output upon being instructed to complete a mathematical problem (Siegler, 1996).  Expectedly though, there are distinctions between good students and perfectionists. Specifically, perfectionists have been determined to apply recalled strategies with even lesser frequency than both good and not-so-good students (Siegler, 1996).

F. Apply this model to a personal example

The strategy choice model may be most appropriately applied to pursuits of gaining money for a product to be bought. For one, since previous methods of selling other items and thus gaining money to purchase the product have worked, then such would be the initial strategy to be chosen. If such fails, then alternative strategies may be conceptualized which may not necessarily be from memory. An example of such would be to borrow money from a peer or to coerce another person to purchase the aforementioned product instead.

Divorce has a very negative impact on the lives of children. Children become very distant from their parents and friends. This is proved by my personal experience. I was just three years old, when I experienced the breakup of my family unit. I can remember, it was very difficult, because I was the only child among all my friends, whose parents were divorced. By the time I was seven years old, the most hurtful thing for me was when I went to a friends house. I felt awkward seeing a family together, knowing mine wasnt. Holiday season was the worst, because friends would ask me questions about my family, such as how we spent the holidays and I wasnt quite sure what to say. My school teachers wondered why my Russian speaking grandmother would come for parent-teacher conferences and nod at them inscrutably. I was embarrassed to say that my mom was busy working on two jobs, because she kicked my dad out for being emotionally retarded. Even now, I am almost twenty years old, and I still carry all of this anger and aggression with me, hoping one day to let it all out.

Divorce is one of the hardest things for a child to go through during their early age. It affects them in so many ways, over which they have no control. The greatest affect of divorce is the change in life situations. The family is no longer the way it used to be and the children will no longer have both parents around. Children, who are used to playing with the parent, who leaves every day will tend to feel lonely and unloved. The children are aware that nothing will be the same again. They feel that their former secure existence has been replaced by a state of uncertainty. Their bedtime, mealtime and other routines have been altered. These children might end up withdrawn and without the urge to play even with their mates (Henderson 23).

Children of the age group of 3 to 5 years old are at the stage where they require both their mother and father to love and take care of them. Such children are very much curious and enthusiastic about many aspects of their life. But when their parents get separated because of divorce, they are left with nothing but sorrows and thousands of questions. They need answers for questions, like what did I do wrong, what will happen of my future life (Frank F). This affects them psychologically and also their developing mental capability. (Hetherington and Josephine  34).

Children of this age group have the tendency to feel and believe that they are the real cause of their parents divorce. Some children tend to deny that anything is out of place and become very uncooperative and rude (Parker paragraph 4). A study released in 2002 by the Institute for American Values shows that unhappily married adults, who later get divorced, not only end their happy life, but also leave a very false effect on their children, which affects them mentally, psychologically and socially. More than half of all American children witness the breakup of a parents marriage. Some of these witness the break of their parents second marriage. (Furstenberg, Zill, Nord, and Peterson Life Course)

Such children, without knowing the real cause behind the divorce of their parents, become more aggressive and angry towards one of their parents. They develop an argumentative and antisocial behaviour. Many children, though showing happiness on their face, feel very much depressed and sad from inside. This continues for a long period of time and such children enter into wrong paths, such as drug addiction, juvenile delinquency, prostitution.

As far as I am personally concerned, I am an outgoing and sociable person when in a company. When I am alone I am depressed and miserable. I didnt have any attention from my parents while growing up and I seek that attention now. I am always the go-getter out of all of my friends, and I am always surrounded by a lot of people. I have held in my anger for almost two decades and the way I let my feelings out is by diverting my mind and entertaining myself in some extra curricular activities.

Interview with a child affected by divorce 

This is the interview with Michael,10.
When I was five years old my mom and dad got divorced. My father moved to Boston, and I was very much hurt, because I realized that he was leaving and I would not be able to see him every day. We used to spend much time together. At that age I felt very much sad, depressed and angry, because all my friends used to tell me about their parents, and I was to just listen to them. I was left alone and I had to take many decisions myself, most of which used to be wrong. My father said he would be divorcing my mom, but that he wouldnt be divorcing me. I wept for a long time. From that day I hoped every second that he will come back home very soon and we will live together. I always hope that my mom shall never remarry again because no one can take the place of my father. What I am just hoping and will keep hoping is that they solve all their misunderstandings and live together once again. (Krementz, Jill).

Children may live with a false hope that their parents will get back together. When they fail to do so, they react with disappointment. Some children will refuse to eat due to the stress, especially those that are so attached to the parent, who leaves. They get thin and get different problems associated with poor nutrition. Due to all the effects associated with the divorce, academic performance of the children is affected (Henderson 14). Such children lack parental support, which is the most essential ingredient required at this age. They feel degraded and they feel separate from their peers and colleagues.

The pain experienced by a child of divorced parents is composed of a sense of vulnerability as the family separates, a feeling of intense anger and misunderstanding and very strong feelings thinking that they are helpless and powerless (Hetherington).

Children between 5 to 8 years old very often cry and grieve for their parents love. Such children often have the feeling that their parents will reunite, which happens very rarely. The children face a very difficult time at this age placing their life in danger.

Divorce disrupts the development of the skills in children which is needed to adapt to society later in life. One of the most intriguing hypotheses about the effects of divorce on children is the suggestion that it makes them think that they need to grow up a little faster. Because of increased practical and emotional demands, children of divorced parents may have to assume responsibilities at an earlier age than their peers, especially, if they have younger siblings. My sister, for example, feels that she missed out on her childhood, because she was busy taking care of my brother and me. I feel that my older sister now resents both my brother and me, because now that we are older, we have enjoyed the teenage years that she missed out on.

The effects of divorce are more considerable for a girl child compared to a boy child. The former is more sensitive than the latter. What girls usually need in their life is nothing but a father. If, after divorce, a girl child lives with her mother, the most important aspect of life, which she will miss is the contact with her father. Such disappearance of her father will reduce her self esteem and her will to live life. They wont be able to understand and experience day-to-day love and care from and for the opposite sex. This results in the lack of creating a healthy relationship with an opposite sex. They feel abandoned and very much dejected. In a girls life there are many decisions where she requires the help and consultancy of her father. In such a case she ends up in making wrong decisions resulting in her own loss. Divorce affects the girl even at the time of her marriage. When asked by her parents in law about her father, she wont be able to give the sufficient answer making her embarrassed. This leads to the breakage of her marriage. She may take steps, such as suicide, anger outbursts and many criminal acts.

Morrison and Block conducted a survey of children living in two-parent families. This survey was conducted in 1981. In it, a measure of parental agreement of child-rearing practices (completed when the children were 3 years old) showed lower levels of aggression among boys at the age of three, four, and seven, whereas agreement tended to be associated with higher levels of externalizing among girls. Based on this survey it was predicted that there will be some increases in social competence among girls but not among boys. Growing up a faster hypothesis is the name given to the results of this survey. This study shows that when conflict arises between parents, boys react with increased aggression whereas girls react with increased pro-social behaviour. Maturity and high social competence is often found in divorced parents children. But this only has negative outcome in the long run. There are many other consequences of divorce, which have not been discovered yet and may not become evident until years later. It has also been found out that the impact of early divorce of parents has the risk of medical problems in children like idiotism and especially depression.
Researchers have shown that after the divorce, male children raised by fathers and female children raised by mothers are likely to do better than male children raised by their mothers and female children raised by their fathers. School aged boys staying with their male parents, or have greater contact with them, tend to be less aggressive. They also tend to have less emotional problems than boys, who live with their mothers and have little or no communication with theirfathers. Female children raised by their female parents tend to be more mature and responsible than those raised by their male parents. The effect in girls and boys in the long run depend with the parent who raises them (Lee sec. 2.4).

Further affects of divorce on children
Insecure feelings. Such children feel insecure and afraid about their future. Many questions arise in their mind, like what will happen in future, will we be poor, will we have food to eat or not

Fear of being abandoned. Children feel that one of the parents have left him. They may also fear that his other parent may also leave him.

Wrong thinking. They may start blaming themselves for the separation of their parents.

Powerlessness. Children of divorced parents may feel and consider themselves alone, sad and helpless. The result may be that the child takes wrong path like drug addiction.

Stress and Loneliness. They may develop stress among themselves. They may develop the character of loneliness, anger, aggression.

Psychological and Mental problems. Because of all these reasons, such children may face many psychological and health problems. They may turn insane, lunatic. They may develop many diseases like asthma, lifelong headache or dyslexia.

Feeling of growing up faster. One of the most intriguing hypotheses about the effects of divorce on children is the suggestion that it makes them grow up a little faster. Because of increased practical and emotional demands, divorced children may have to assume responsibilities at an earlier age than their peers, especially if they have younger siblings.

Lack of wish to become parents in future. Children affected by divorce become less attentive, less disciplined and mischievous. They have the feeling that all marriages come to an end by divorce. So they there is an instinct in their mind that they do not want to become parents. They make the decision of not marrying and do not want take responsibilities of either a mother or a father.

Sadly, the parental support needed during these times is often lacking, because parents are so wrapped up in their own problems during a divorce that their ability to function as parents diminishes.

Statistics showing the affects of divorce on children
Many studies in the early 90s showed that children of divorced parents had negative results in their academic life earning lower grades and getting lesser marks. (Cherlin, Andrew, Marriage, Divorce, Remarriage, Harvard University 1981).

40 of the children growing today in America are being raised without their fathers.

Children are affected more mentally and psychologically because of parents separation due to divorce compared to such separation by death.

Most victims of child molestation come from single-parent households or are the members of groups which use and take drugs. (Los Angeles Times 16 September 1985 The Garbage Generation).

Not less than 63 children have some psychological problems such as anxiety, sadness, depression and moodiness phobia.

The minimum number of children affected by divorce every year is one million.

Around 56 children show negative results in their academic performance resulting in lower grades, bad performance. (A report, Michigan University).

Such children are at greater risk of life. They may have lifelong medical problems like asthma, headache, etc. They feel insecure, afraid, worried. (Survey on children health, Journal of marriage and family).

Sexual abuse rate of girls by their step fathers is on a high increase. This rate compared to the rate in previous years is six to seven times higher. (Diana E. H. Russell, Child abuse and neglect, 1984, p. 15).

Children are the persons who suffer to the maximum when their parents divorce. This suffering has long lasting psychological damage. E.g. neglect of children affects the children more compared to physical abuse. (Yuriko Egami, American journal of psychiatry, 1996, p.921).

Children who come from broken or divorced homes are twice as likely to commit suicide compare to the people who do not come from such homes. (Cohen, Velez, Suicidal behavior and ideation in a committee sample of children, 1988)

Steps to be taken to help the children after their parents
Divorce and the separation of parents can have a n immense impact on the social, psychological and emotional life of children. This affects the children in the age group of 5-8 years, and such drastic changes in their early life put their teenagehood also in grave danger. Such children fail to understand the parent-child relationship. The development of skills in such children becomes slow. Their behaviour also gets affected. Thus, there is a need for effective steps to be taken by, not only the divorcing couples but also many organizations in helping such children to grow emotionally and socially.

Based on the statistics provided above, it can be understood that children need love of both the mom as well as the dad. They need a loving and stable environment around themselves so that they can grow without any mental or social problem. Children should be kept away from abusing atmosphere as it is very much harmful for their future life.

To minimize the psychological effects of divorce on children both the parents, after divorce, must attempt to meet and fulfill all the basic and essential needs of their children. The most important thing to remember is that children need the love and care of both the mother and father. The most important step to be taken after divorce is to see that the child is not asked to choose between his father and mother.

The ability of the parents to communicate with the children and make them understand is very important. Although it is painful to talk about the divorce, discussing the problem with the children will help in strengthening the relationship with them, which is very important after they are left fore the care of only one parent. Talking will also help in fostering their trust especially for the children who are left with the parent they are against. Talking about general matters will be helpful for younger children (Hetherington and Josephine 30).

The parents should be able to meet their needs for protection and support. There is a need for the parents to be strong for the sake of the children. Adults should be able to take care of themselves and maintain a good relationship with the ex- husband or the ex-wife, which will help the children in dealing with the effects. There should be minimal conflicts between parents after the divorce to protect the children (Parker paragraph 2).
Children should be given a field to express their feelings and grieve their loss, to be able to come out of the inevitable situation stronger and more resilient. There is a need to reassure the children that they can still count on both parents for love and support throughout their life. Moving children from one house to another will not be helpful. Young children tend to think that they are being punished when they are moved from one household to another. They tend to feel that they are being thrown out because they are not good children. Arrangements should be made for the benefit of the children. Parents should quit being selfish and do whatever is for the benefit of their children. Both parents should continue to be close to the children, no matter who gets the custody, so that the children will feel loved and cared for (Lee section 2.7).

Parents should make it clear for the children that the divorce is ultimate, so that their fantasy of their parents getting back together is discouraged. Let both of the parents participate in raising them and in that way their dream of having the parents together will be somehow realized. Parents should try as much as possible to limit disruptions to the children in the divorce process. They should try as much as possible to retain them in their school, house, child care and their neighborhood. They should monitor and understand what their child thinks about divorce and help him. In very serious cases, counseling can help the children in coping with the situation (Henderson 24).

In such a case, there is a need for some child specialists and other child mental health professionals, who can understand the real nature and character of such children and help them root out the negative thinking from their mind, their heart and their life. Such professionals have the capability to be cognizant of the broad spectrum regarding the disadvantages of such divorce on children. After learning and understanding the mind set of such children they can provide sufficient support to such children to help them develop the psychological aspects of life.

Thus taking such steps will lead to a healthy relationship between parents and their children. Such steps will also reduce the impact of divorce on the children.

Buggy strategy is an exceptional illustration scheme that represents each and every mislearned technical skill or sub skill independently. The word bug was derived from the computer slang to show procedural errors, for instance correct implementation of a wrong procedure, rather than basic misconceptions. The strategy was developed by R. R. Burton and J. S. Brown in 1975. It started with study of procedures by students implicated in algebraic operation, such as subtraction of multi numbers (Bundy, 1983). Examples of buggy strategy include coaching and diagnostic models. Buggy strategy or program offers a mechanism in which a teacher can be able to explain why a pupil is making an arithmetic error rather than to just identifying the error. It also permits teachers to carry out diagnosing of the fundamental sources of students mistakes through presenting examples of incorrect and systematic behavior (Bundy, 1983). On teaching procedures, buggy strategy emphasized that teachers instructions can be very remedial in correction of pupils misconception. This is because most of the arithmetic errors made by pupils or students are systematic. However, this contravenes the beliefs of most teachers, who perceive that arithmetic mistakes committed by students are haphazard aberrations of the right procedure of solution (Bundy, 1983).

Multiple Pathways Model
Generally, pathways model are very useful in organizing and simplifying individuals thoughts to the sense of information. Multiple pathways model offers a plan to remind an individual what he knows as well as adding diversity to his or her learning practices. There are three major assumptions which form the basis of the multiple pathway models the brain triggers pathways in the process of learning, brains are too diverse, and individuals desire to teach from a wide range of approaches (John et al., 1995). Therefore, students besieged by word or language disparities may perhaps gain from diverse approaches, which assist them in building links to existing skills and sturdy information networks. In multiple pathways model, the earlier the second language is taught in school the better for word reorganization and identification by students (John et al., 1995).

Phonological Decoding and Visual Retrieval
There are three main cognitive capabilities that donate to peoples disparity in recognition of words. These are visual retrieval or memory, phonological memory, and visual verbal learning capability. Visual retrieval refers to the ability to store and recover, retrieve, or salvage visual images of many things (Cunha and Visser, 2007). This cognitive ability is imperative in learning to identify the exceptional spellings of words which are printed. Phonological memory refers to long and short term memory for language units, such as syllables, phonemes together with sentences and phrases. Phonological memory is imperative in learning vocabulary, segmenting and analyzing words as well as holding written and spoken words in memory (Cunha and Visser, 2007). Therefore, phonological decoding is the capability to use sound-symbol connections in decoding unfamiliar words that are printed (John et al., 1995). Individual disparities in visual retrieval are as well interrelated with individual disparities in identification of words as well as sound-letter decoding skills, however less sturdy than visual verbal and phonological learning skills. Furthermore, visual retrieval functions do not consistently differentiate between poor and good readers as phonological decoding do (Cunha and Visser, 2007).

Strategy Choice Model
Application of strategy choice model ideas to reading words is substantial because it offers an overpass between word identification and comprehension. When these ideas are applied children or students center their focus on what the words mean, rather than concentrating on word decoding. Ideas of strategic choice model they as well make the reading of words to sound natural and lively (John et al., 1995).