Pedagogy

A Lesson Plan for Teaching English Verb Tense to Hearing Adolescents whose first language is American Sign Language

Gestural indicators, including nonverbal communication and sign language, comprise ninety-three percent of communication (Communication, 1997). Hearing children whose native language is American Sign Language (ASL), such as those students whose parents are deaf, have unique differences, advantages, and challenges to their cognitive language processes which affect their education as English As a Second Language (ESL) students - despite varying levels of comfort with the spoken and written English language. This paper will analyze and propose approaches to teaching these students verb tense through the skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. After careful observation of which teaching method is most efficacious in the respective forms of communication, this paper will implement a detailed lesson plan following the approach with the best success rate as measured by the students retention over time. The program will incorporates principles of teaching practices from Brown (1988), which includes samples and a proposal for instruction of these unique English Language Learners (ELLs) in the macroskills of reading and writing.


The American Guide to Common Tense
A Lesson Plan Concerning English Verb Tense for Native Signing Adolescents

Over seven hundred high schools in the United States now offer American Sign Language (ASL) as a foreign language. In 2004, there were thirty-two secondary schools offering ASL as a foreign language in the state of Virginia alone. The number of high school students in such classes in Florida and Texas was eleven to twelve thousand (17). Clearly the tide of the perception of the differences between ASL and English is turning (Rosen, 2008).

Ninety-three percent of communication is non-verbal of that large portion, fifty-five percent of nonverbal communication utilizes facial expressions to convey intent (Communication, 1997). In William C. Stokoe and the Gestural Theory of Language Origins, Wilcox explains the building blocks of language small, representative units which join to form the semantic phonology of words, sentences, and whole conversations. He also asserts that gestures are language. He writes

Gestural theory unites language and gesture, it unites perception and conception, and it unites the represented world of objects and events and the representing world of words and grammar. Semantic phonology is the means by which the unification takes place (Wilcox, 3).

Of the fifty-five percent of instinctive, socially-programmed, and linguistic gestures involved in nonverbal communication, thirty-eight percent of this type of communication is interpreted by vocal cues (Wilcox, 2009). This presents a problem for hearing children raised in a signing environment, where the need to listen, speak, read, and write is minimal and even nonexistent in some households, such as those in which both parents are deaf. Thus, the need for an integrative approach to the formation of the English as a Second Language (ESL) lesson plan that pays specific attention to the needs of children raised in such an environment. Careful analysis is essential for cognitive development in hearing children primarily exposed to American Sign Language rather than verbal tutelage (Rosen, 2008).

Literature Review of Macroskill Approaches and Brown Principles
Total communication is one of the latest developments in ASL linguistic education. The research indicates that the simultaneous use of residual hearing, speechreading, fingerspelling, spelling, and signs comprises the most efficient means of receiving information for young children. Contrary to the popular belief that manual communication limited the effectiveness of oral training, the research has surprised many and reinforced the argument for the use of total communication (Moores, Weiss,  Goodwin, 233).  Two things are clear. The first is that Total Communication is currently the most effective form of education for signing students, and it should be combined with the Situational Learning method to produce an environment of comfort, ease, and interest as they learn abstract concepts. The second is that Browns twelve principles are particularly sensitive to the precarious identity crisis of these teens-  between childhood and adulthood, in between English and ASL (and all of the politics that accompany those differences), and in between the cultures and communities of the hearing and the Deaf people.

Verb usage, in particular, is complicated for the hearing native signer, because verbs are simple in American Sign Language and tense is irrelevant. In sign language the time frame comes at the beginning of the sentence. Instead of saying I ran yesterday, a native signer would literally sign Yesterday I run. Verbs themselves are always present-tense unless stated otherwise. Conjugated and auxiliary verbs, in general, must simply be memorized, because the Interlanguage Principle can only connect contextual words to generate an impression of time for example, in any sentence being signed, there is no conjugation of the tense of the verb. Rather, such words as tomorrow in American Sign Language, implies the act was completed in the past in English grammar. However the complexity of the language becomes even more apparent when the use of auxiliary verbs are used. An example in verbal English would be the sentence I was running yesterday when The auxiliary verb of was sets the context in the past but the usage of the present tense running is often very difficult to understand for non-native speakers. The two tenses seem paradoxical at first, but with enough training, the grammatical intricacies can be understood with proper tutelage. Even the syntactical order of verbs is different subject, direct object, and then action verb.  Furthermore, deaf parents themselves have varying levels of fluency in American Sign Language, and- in cases where native signers linguistic competency is below their peers English attainment capacity  the disadvantage of native signing children is not in the inability to hear but in the differing syntactical phrasing that can only be mastered through linguistic exposure (Marschark et al, 2007).

Brown proposes that there are twelve principles which a teacher should strive to fulfill. Of these, we will focus primarily on Meaningful Learning (purpose-bound education), Strategic Investment (selective combination and application of different methodologies and approaches), Language Ego (sociolinguistic personal identity), Self-confidence, Risk-taking, Language-culture Connection (sociolinguistic interpersonal identity), Native Language Effect (the imprinting of ones primary language upon future language acquisitions), Interlanguage (translation of additional language concepts to familiar concepts, or bridging the linguistic gap), and Communicative Competence (clarity and ability to relate) principles.  (University of South Queensland, 2010).

As we explore the macroskills of listening, speaking, reading and writing, we will apply these concepts to the proposed lesson plan. It should be noted that the goal of each methodology should be to incorporate as many of these principles as possible, but none of the methodologies or learning theories have encompassed all twelve thus far.

Listening
For the purposes of this paper, we will refer to speech-reading also as listening. The auditory method places heavy emphasis on listening and discourages reading and writing. Browns principles are evenly matched on this methods efficacy. For those hearing signers who wish to remain within the Deaf community, Meaningful Learning and listening may prove contradictory. Functionality- more so than methodology- is important to the success of the unit, so Strategic Investment is a make or break aspect of lesson planning. The auditory method embraces the very responsive, participatory, and expressive aspects of the auditory method- but falls short-sighted by limiting its scope predominantly to listening (Moores et al., 1973 USQ, 2010).

It has been established that whether one is investigating a visuogestural sign language in (deaf) native sign language users, or a heard spoken language in native speech users, similar regions, comprising left superior temporal and parts of the inferior frontal lobe are reliably active. To paraphrase, gestural and spoken languages both share similar linguistic and cognitive brain activity (Campbell  Capeck, 771). The input-feedback process is as important to their educational development as it would be in any child.

Speaking
Some of the same objections to the emphasis of listening or speech-reading apply to speaking. For children with some residual hearing or Cochlear implants- or for those who were late-deafened- their self-confidence with speech may be higher than their classmates. For hearing students raised in verbally-silent households where sign is the primary means of communication, common cultural aspects of the tempo, pitch, slang, and other customs of speech are unfamiliar to them. The principle of Self-Confidence for these students is paramount to their level of acceptance of the material and, consequently, takes on a vital importance.

The cognitive approach, which advocates a rule-based education, is not appropriate for the comprehension of the differences between English and ASL culture and tense. We may use our previous examples of the auxiliary verbs can and will, as can swim or will swim. This would be an advisable methodology for elementary education but not for Middle School or High School students, whose cognitive level has long-since surpassed the age of simplistic explanations. The particular principle that we are referring to is Interlanguage.

However, if the cognitive approach were to be melded with Elliss first principle, which says that instruction needs to ensure that learners develop both a rich repertoire of formulaic expressions and a rule-based competence, then this accepting method of teaching writing would be beneficial (Ellis, 2008, 1).

Reading
The schema process (as discussed in our Week 7 PowerPoint) of reading takes an interactive, top-down approach to language acquisition. It explains background, structural framework, and cultural knowledge (which, in turn, aids in the students Interlanguage cultural transition). Reading increases familiarity with vocabulary. A reader who is unfamiliar with insider- or native- vocabulary can infer the meaning of an excerpt by piecing together the bits that they recognize already. Consequently, reading is a visually-reinforcing aspect to vocabulary retention. As we learned in the Module 6 PowerPoint of our coursework, frequency, range, needs, coverage, regularity, and learning burden are vital items in the education in a second language. Reading effectively blankets these items in an interesting, confidence-building way.

One experiment studied the cognitive linguistic development of deaf and hearing children. The results displayed that both sets of children retain information better when they read material than when it is signed or read to them. Furthermore, signing students scored higher on the recognition of main ideas but lower on testing of details. From as early as six years of age, native signers ability to contextualize is constantly challenged. Reading, then, is more a dilemma of Communicative Competence, of a teachers ability to translate material from one perspective to another (Marschark et al., 2007).

Writing
Situational language teaching is perfect for teaching ASL. Likewise, if you use this method to connect verb tenses, the native ASL signers will be able to culturally connect with and appreciate what may be the most comfortable method of learning for them. New signing students in American Sign Language are often dismayed by the common No Voice policy. However, the situational language instruction is more engaging on a personal level and entertaining (because it often involves a one-person silent skit or face-to-face communication). Furthermore, it utilizes the Language-Culture Connection, Interlanguage, and Risk-Taking principles in a relatively low-pressure environment.

Frequent reading and writing builds a level of comfort with vocabulary and conjugations which the students might never have heard before. However, at least for the native signers who wish to maintain the established language ego of American Sign Language, English is used primarily as a formal means of communication outside of the Deaf community (USQ, 2010). Accepting and capitalizing upon the close connections of the Deaf community members is necessary to the encouragement of English language usage in all forms.

My Combined Approach
Because the benefits and disadvantages of the many forms of approaches are contradictory, my lesson will mainly focus on Total Communication and Situational Learning. However, making sentences simple and concise will ease the transition into the use and supports the Grammar Translation Method, and speaking clearly and enunciating will ease the transition from the seen to heard. MRI studies have shown that signing students have higher activity levels of activity in the left superior temporal cortex, the portion of the brain that analyzes the movements of the mouth as interpreted through speech-reading (Campbell  Capeck, 2008).

As a whole class we will cover the unit with students being called on to find their own examples also and exhibit their understanding and critical thinking progress on the subject of verb tense. In Enhancing cooperative learning in TESOL teacher education, positive interdependence, individual accountability, face-to-face promotive interaction, social skills, and group processing are cited as the requirements of effective peer cooperative learning This especially true for the Junior High age group for which we will be developing a lesson plan, because this is when the adolescent shift from family to social groups begin (DelliCarpini 2009). The adolescent years are largely focused around social and interactive concerns and organization (USQ 2010). Group learning is not used frequently enough or according to the five standards and requirements that are listed above. For those teachers who tried to properly apply cooperative learning to their lesson plans, the three most common limitations to its use were a lack of comfort, a lack of support from other teachers, and negative experiences related to classroom management (2009).

These limitations are countered by one of Browns principles risk-taking (Ellis, 2008). If the teacher does not lead by example, then no one will follow. Native signers are largely either ignored altogether or are exploited as guinea pigs for methodologies that are indifferent to their cultural and linguistic viewpoint. Risk-reward behavior is a practice for teachers, too.

Part B
2 READING and WRITING Verb Tense Lesson Plans
LANGUAGE American Sign Language to English
 Year  age group level of proficiency Junior High Varying Proficiency
TOPICTITLE Verb Tense Conjugations              LESSON LENGTH 30 minutes each
Aim The students will establish and hone the skills that are needed to properly identify tense and ably identify, name, and use past, present, and future tense verbs while building vocabulary and establishing comfort in a relatively low-pressure class environment.
Relevant prior learning knowledge Read Ray Bradburys A Sound of Thunder. (The link to a printable booklet version is provided before the lesson plan.)
Teacher preparation Printed and stapled booklets of A Sound of Thunder and key point reiteration hand-outs
Resources Website for printing the Bradbury short story booklets httpwww.onebee.commediaPDFA_Sound_of_Thunder-Ray_Bradbury.pdf

Language Learning Objectives, Activities, and Outcomes Pre-Task
Ask the students what they like to do. Select one of the verbs at a time and ask for volunteers to tell you how, in English, you would conjugate the word for past, present, and future tense. Keeping Browns principle of the Native Language Effect in mind, you should begin by putting it simply Okay, swim is a good verb. Using swim, how would you say that you did that yesterday... Yesterday I ______ . Concentrate on creating the link between ASLs priority of tense verbs at the beginning of the sentence and key words within the context of English sentences (USQ, 2010). Further examples and vocabulary will be provided in the A Sound of Thunder lesson. This is the confidence-building warm-up portion of the lesson.
The Sound of Thunder Tense Verbs Unit of Reading and Writing

GIVEN EXAMPLE
Read the following sentence from page two We guarantee nothing, said the official, except the dinosaurs (Bradbury, 1952). In a sense, this example refers to the past, present, and future, but students should be able to identify which tense is being applied in the situational context of the excerpt. While the students will listen to the reading and speak about the reading, the emphasis is still upon reading to come to their own analysis of the text and of verb usage. Writing should be reserved for the notes of all information written on the board and so will be ensured to be correct.

Language Learning Objectives, Activities, and Outcomes Task
After the Pre-Task phase is completed, ask the students to find other verbs in the short story. If there are no volunteers, then the ice can easily be broken by refreshing memory with a short synopsis of The Sound of Thunder.

The Sound of Thunder Tense Verbs Unit of Reading and Writing
Ask for volunteers again. If there are still none, then offer more examples. On page 9, Travis said, There he is. Theres His Royal Majesty now (Bradbury, 1952). This is a perfect and simple introduction to stative verb is and its use in contractions. If the students are still confused about these variations of the stative verb is, then select a student to read the two sentences in the context of the two paragraphs before and after it as well.

LESSON TWO READING AND WRITING
Review the selection. The students will then generalize about the action of the selection, and be informally quizzed about the situation in the two particular sentences of the example above. At this point, they should be ready to demonstrate their understanding of the intended meaning of the sentence and grasp the details that indicate and comprise verb tense and have a solid foundation for the further exploration of verbs. (Any examples- whether located by the teacher or the student- should be read aloud and the verbs should be identified.)

The class will then be polled (by show of hands) on the tense as past, present, and future. Everyone should remain facing forward. This will alleviate some of the uncertainty (as recommended by the Self-Confidence principle) and create an Interlanguage personal involvement and identification with English and the new possibilities of a dualistic Language Ego.

Discuss how they come to an understanding of tense. Are there key words Write the following list on the board and ask that the students identify more possible examples either from their own experiences or from the literature. It is important that the students be able to identify the use of ing and ed endings and certain auxiliary verbs as an indicator of verb tense.
Then, past, historic, once, last, yesterday
VERBS did, had, was, looked
Now, present, current, still, today
VERBS do, have, am, look
One day, future, hopefully, someday, tomorrow
VERBS will do, can will have, will be, will look

Language Learning Objectives, Activities, and Outcomes Post-Task
The Sound of Thunder Tense Verbs Unit of Reading and Writing
The students should be able to infer from key words and verb conjugations when the action is happening. This is where the teacher must engage the students imagination once again.

Review the first pre-task example chosen by a student and informally quiz them on the proper forms of the verb to mean yesterday, today, and tomorrow. Continue the recap by reviewing their selections, as well as the contraction usage of Theres. An example from ther text (on page 4) Christ isnt born yet. Reiterate that a person am and an object is I am sitting on a chair that is way too small for me. Next, create sentences from the list of key tense words that you came up with together. See if they can identify when the action occurred and further identify what tense that time frame implies. Be sure to briefly explain the importance of this concept as a matter of courtesy and professionalism and to reward the students for their successful inferences. Development of their Language Ego will be vital to their perception of English and to their development of self-confidence, but clarity and understanding of the differences between the signing and mainstream cultural and linguistic quirks aids in successful achievement of Communicative Competence.

Although the time machine of this story is still a subject of science fiction, provide a bridge into the next unit of your Ray Bradbury Readings and Modern Grammar unit through the use of the teaser, i.e. the next futuristic Bradbury literature may not sound so far-fetched. This teaser will also provide a hint at the meaningfulness of the unit in the perspectives of History, English, Grammar, and Technology.

Finally, discuss the changes in the sign on page seventeen. Ask 1) What has changed, 2) Why do you think it changed, and 3) How does the change in language reflect a social change  Point out- if no students do so first- that Bradbury writes about the chemical taint of the air (Bradbury, 1952). The students should be able to identify the incorrect spelling on the sign and the implications involved and be able to navigate seamlessly through the different time settings of the short story.

Language reflects culture. As the students learn English, they are given the choice to choose or move between mainstream American or Deaf culture. The point is that they now have the choice without much fear of embarrassment- with self-confidence.  These are the Risk-Taking and Self-Confidence principles of Brown, arguably two of the most effective to use to educate native signers on the acquisition of English. However, when teaching English to those fluent in ASL as their first language, the principles involving language and culture are vital to successful outcomes and mindful application of the principles of Meaningful Learning, Strategic Investment, Language Ego, Language-Culture Connection, Native Language Effect, and Interlanguage principles will aid inthe development of Communicative Competence. Without first establishing such a principle of competence, Risk-Taking and Self-Confidence are beyond a teachers grasp.