Pedagogy

Second language learning involves the conscious knowledge of a second languages rules, being aware of them and utilizing them appropriately. In order to gain adept competence in a second language learners are taught the concepts of the second language using a vast range of methodologies. These methodologies have emerged from the application of second language learning approaches which have emerged over the years in a bid to foster an understanding of second language acquisition. These approaches explain how second languages are best learned and that there exists basic principles which often guide second language learning. This paper seeks to provide an analysis of such principles and their application into second language teaching methodologies.

In modern day second language learning learner centered strategies are utilized in maximizing the learning experiences and outcomes of learners. As such methodologies like grammar translation, audio-lingualism, Total Physical Response, direct methods, natural approach, task based approach and community language learning are used in the learning process. It is from these approaches that principles of second language learning have emerged. Among these principles is the emphasis on instructions which ensure a learners predominant focus on meaning, the focus on form, the emphasis on instructions need to focus on the implicit knowledge as well as explicit knowledge of the second language, the need for instructions to also consider the learners already built in syllabus, that second language learning requires extensive second language input and output, that second language proficiency requires interaction with the second language and that instructions in the second language need to take into consideration learners individual needs. These principles have guided teachers in second language learning classrooms productively.

Principle 1 Instruction should ensure the predominant focus on meaning by learners.

One principle of second language learning indicates that second language learning instructions need to focus on mainly on meaning as pointed out by Ellis (2008, p.1). This guiding aspect emerges from the realization that natural language learning usually concerns itself with grasping language meaning as opposed to its form. As such, learners should be provided with natural settings where their focus is on the contents of the messages in second language contexts. This focus on meaning fosters fluency in the second language, vocabulary, grammar and learners also become highly motivated in the learning process. Methodologies which apply this principle include task based teaching where teachers design communicative tasks which aim at creating general learning opportunities in the second language. Functioning as communicators, both teachers and learners engage in interactions which require the utilization of the second language (Renandya and Richards, 2002, p.96). For instance, such activities like role playing tasks can foster the learning of vocabulary and sentence meanings.

Principle 2 Motivation is the simulation of second language learning

The above principle introduces another principle which postulates that second language learning is highly dependent on motivation for simulation. Second language learning is a rather difficult task and the more motivated learners are, the better placed they are in learning the second language. As such, instructions in second language teaching are required to incorporate classroom activities which fuels learners interests and prompt their competent acquisition of the second language. Such approaches as the Total Physical Response can be used to foster vocabulary learning or even second language speech development. As learners obey commands given by the teachers they understand the meaning and basic rules of the second language even before they have adapted to the spoken language. Furthermore, such activities develop interests in learners as they actively engage in the learning process.

Principle 3 Instructions should also ensure the learners focus on form.

Second language learning needs also to attend to language form and instructional strategies must also be tailored towards establishing the same. This can be achieved using communicative tasks, inductive and deductive grammar lessons or other interactive opportunities which allow learners to concentrate on how second language elements are formed. In the grammar translation approach learners can learn sentence rules by being provided with explanations of grammar rules accompanied with sentence examples. Vocabularies can also be displayed in a bilingual list of learners first and the second language being taught. These approaches allow learners to master the basic concepts of the second language.

Principle 4 Second language learning instructions should also ensure that learners develop both rule based competence and a wide range of formulaic expressions.

Formulaic expressions are widely used by learners in their study of second languages and they serve as a foundation for later acquisition of rule based competence. For instance, rote learning can prompt learners to gain knowledge of sentence meanings which can later on translate to their examination of sentence components fostering the learning of sentence formation rules and types of sentence structures. As such task based approaches should incorporate formulaic chunks which are better placed to peak the learners use and understanding of the second language.

Principle 5 Second Language learning instructions need to ensure that learners acquire both implicit and explicit forms of knowledge.

Instructions in second language learning should also focus on the development of implicit knowledge of the second language in learners and at the same time also emphasize the importance of explicit knowledge. In order to gain fluency and competence in a second language, learners must have a grasp on implicit knowledge. This form of knowledge is held unconsciously and verbalized only as explicit knowledge. Implicit knowledge can be fostered in classroom instructions through the utilization of tasks which focus on meanings of second language content. Indeed, learners should participate in communicative tasks which can build up their implicit knowledge and prompt its gradual application in verbal communication. In applying this principle, cooperative learning amongst learners and their teachers creates better learning opportunities for the acquisition of implicit knowledge as asserted by Renandya and Richards (2002, p.97).

Principle 6 Effective second language learning requires extensive provision of comprehensible second language input.

Principle 7 Effective Second language learning also requires opportunities for output.
Efficient second language learning also requires extensive language input which can only be realized when learners are widely exposed to the second language. This input should also be made comprehensible for learners with tasks simplified to fit various levels of students understanding. In order to ensure that learners access adequate and comprehensible second language input, instructional methodologies such as direct methods can be incorporated. For instance, teachers need to explicitly used the second language during classroom instructions and this will offer learners valuable input for better second language learning opportunities. Furthermore, teachers can also provide opportunities for obtaining second language input away from the classroom by giving them extensive reading tasks. Opportunities for second language output are also fundamental in second language learning as they prompt learners to pay keen attention to the language, practice the language and also master confidence in using the language.

Principle 8 Social factors affect second language learning

According to Ellis (1994, p.197) social factors are important in second language proficiency as they set learners attitudes towards the language. In environments where learners feel threatened by the second language, instructors need to be tailored in such a way that their native languages are used in the learning process. In the community language learning approach learners are able to interact with other learners using their native languages and this lessens the effects of their feelings of threat by the second language.
Principle 9 Second language learning instructions should put into consideration individual differences in learners.

Social factors affect of learning differ amongst learners and therefore, instructions must also consider individual differences among learners and aspire to cater for the effectively. Learners differ in their ages, learning aptitudes, motivation levels, personalities and cognitive styles. It is only in adapting flexible teaching approaches that teachers can cater for these variations. In doing so, they can tailor instructional methods to fit slow learners capabilities using simpler contents and even in the use of graphic aids especially in vocabulary learning.

Principle 10 Second language learning instructions should consider the built-in syllabus of learners.

According to the natural order hypothesis, second language learners master target languages in a universal order especially in the learning of grammatical structures. Learners also follow various stages in their language learning process and their already built-in syllabus does make up their implicit knowledge. In order to accomplish this principle, instructional approaches should include the adaptation of a zero grammar approach where grammar tasks do not require learners to predetermine the linguistic content of that particular grammar session. Ideally, learners can progress from their previous applications of grammar rules to their application in the second language.

Principle 11 Assessment of second language proficiency should consider examination of both free and controlled language production.

In order to truly measure the language proficiency of learners, it is important to examine how their communicated in free constructed responses. This is more reliable as opposed to conditioned evaluations like the use of assignments and tests where the learners communication capacities cannot be clearly established. Free constructed responses can be in form of communicative tasks where assessment of the tasks outcomes indicates language proficiency or the lack of it. Controlled conditions like multiple choice tests are significant in identifying the comprehension, accuracy and other aspects of language proficiency which do not require communication skills.

Principle 12 The opportunity to interact using the second language is fundamental in second language learning.

Second language input and output offer considerable contributions to language learning and they are both seen to occur in oral interactions. As such, instruction methodologies should constantly provide learners with opportunities for oral communication in the second language as they are able to actualize conversations, interact verbally and from these interactions they develop syntactic structures. Classroom instructions should include language related activities in a vast range of contexts which will prompt full performance in the second language.

In conclusion, it is evident from the above discussion that second language learning is considered effective when certain principles are utilized in classroom instructions. These principles have basically tailored second language learning methodologies which incorporate meanings and form based language learning, communicative learning, implicit knowledge acquisition, individual learner based teaching, cooperative learning and motivation based learning.