Pedagogy

Parents select the type of school and curriculum they want for their young children. Therefore, knowledge and understanding of different early childhood curricula is a necessity. The factors influencing parents in choosing a school are numerous, but practicality, location, affordability, and previous experience with the school are their most important considerations.

Parents enrolling their children in an early childhood education program that uses a play-based curriculum may have done so only because the school has met their other criteria, not because of their awareness of the effectiveness of this type of program.  When parents understand and appreciate the curriculum, they become more involved and have realistic expectations of their childs learning.
This study aspires to assess the beliefs and attitudes of five parents regarding the play-based curriculum.  Using qualitative methods, this study will ask five parents to share their beliefs and attitudes in narrative form.  The analysis of the data will be conducted based on the narrative responses of the parents wherein commonalities, differences, and emergent themes will be highlighted.

Chapter 1

Early childhood education programs have provided learning experiences to very young children in preparation for formal schooling.  Early childhood education programs strive to provide children with the basic skills on literacy and numeracy, which are crucial for all levels of education, while, at the same time, providing the social, emotional, and cultural interaction that children need for development.  There are a number of early childhood education models Montessori, Reggio-Emilia, Waldorf, Play-Based, and Academics-Based, each with a different philosophy and educational objective, but all striving to contribute to the readiness of children for formal instruction (Singer, Singer, Plaskon,  Schweder, 2003).

Several relevant theoretical frameworks have been designed as a means to establish the working forces behind the effectiveness of a childs learning development.  One of these theories is Vgotskys social constructivist theory which basically refers to the significant role of the adult in terms of the childs success in learning and development.  The idea is that the Zone of Proximal Development or ZPD, Vgotskys core theory, conveys how children are able to learn based on their situated learning and communities of education, in which case it is how the adults determine the childs learning strategies that can eventually indicate the effectiveness of the manner teaching that the child is exposed to.  This thereby explains why parents attitudes and beliefs towards certain learning models for their children are critical in influencing the childs overall development.

The social constructivist theory further claims that individuals perceptions of the reality around them shape their thoughts and behavior (Berger  Luckman, 1966) and that the construction of meaning is a process forged in the crucible of everyday interactionmeanings are negotiated, exchanged, and modified through everyday interactions with others (Rosenholtz, 1989, p. 3).  It also says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiencing and reflecting upon those experiences.

Thus, I too subscribed to the view that, when we encounter something new, we have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experiences perhaps changing what we believe or discarding the new information as irrelevant.  In any case, we are active creators of our own knowledge. In this study, I will ask questions as well as explore and assess the information I gather from the study, which will identify the main aspects or misconceptions surrounding a play-based early childhood curriculum.  Thus, parents who have already enrolled their child in a play-based preschool are expected to have acted rationally and to have perceived their choice as the most advantageous. In this respect, this study hopes to understand parents beliefs and attitudes towards a play-based early childhood curriculum.

In the constructivist lens and the aspect of child-based curriculum, it can be gathered that this framework can be approached two ways based on Vgotskys theory the social constructivist theory as a determinant in the parents attitudes and beliefs towards education models for their children, and the social constructivist theory as a platform that can support play-based curriculum.  Vgotsky theory clearly shows how a child learns based on his or her learning evolution the step from the childs current achievements in learning should continue its transition to learn more substantial as they grow up.  Play, in this aspect, may not be perceived as merely an extra as children perceived to learn more important and serious things which play does not normally live up to.  Although there are the emerging studies that support the importance of play, parent response to this teaching strategy has yet to be established especially as to how play lives up to their beliefs and attitudes towards teaching and learning, and expectations in terms of their childs performance.

Main Research Questions

This study seeks to assess parental perception and understanding of a play-based curriculum in a local preschool where their child is currently enrolled.  In doing so, I hope to fill the gap in the literature on parental choice of preschools and their beliefs and attitudes towards a play-based curriculum.  The goal is to create a more receptive and supportive parental attitude toward the play-based curriculum, thus increasing parental involvement, which, in turn, would create a more effective learning environment.

The questions Ill seek to answer are the following Currently, what is the parental understanding of the play-based curriculum  What are the parental beliefs about the effectiveness and benefits of a play-based curriculum for their children  What negative perceptions do parents have about a play-based curriculum

What effects do these negative perceptions have on parental involvement in their childs learning

Parents want the best for their children choosing a preschool is no exception.  Children have different needs and the preschool program should be able to address those needs.  Parents often choose preschools that are child-friendly that is, they have passed safety standards, provide enough learning materials, employ qualified and caring teachers, and maintain an attractive facility.  Rarely do parents ask about the schools curriculum or its academic offerings. Parents expect that preschools teach children basics like shapes, colors, alphabets, numbers, and reading.  Most preschools integrate these basic skills into their learning programs, but each preschool differs in how the said skills are presented to the children for teaching purposes.

It is important for all parents to have a thorough understanding of the curriculum that their child will be experiencing, whether in preschool or in any other educational setting. Preschools enjoy a certain amount of flexibility in how they teach young children.  Different teaching models are available, and some schools integrate two models.  When parents know and understand the curriculum of their childs preschool, they are more likely to become involved in the schools activities.  They then know how to reinforce their childs learning at home, and there is more collaboration between parents and teachers.

Play-based curricula are largely misperceived as not providing enough attention to skills and learning, since the focus is on play.  They may be misjudged in terms of their effectiveness in helping children to experience and learn.  If better informed, many parents, who may have this misperception, might develop a more positive attitude towards the play-based curriculum, enabling them to make better curriculum choices for their children.  This research will enable me to find answers to the questions I have proposed and to gain a better understanding of parental attitudes towards play-based curricula.

Purpose of Study

My quest to understand the belief systems and attitudes of parents towards a play-based curriculum has multiple purposes to provide readers and the early childhood education sector with information concerning parental beliefs and attitudes towards a play-based curriculum to learn what parents expect from a play-based curriculum and to discern whether they believe it serves as an effective tool for early childhood education.  Moreover, I plan to share this information with school administrators and teachers, demonstrating to them how they can better describe their curricula to parents.  The results of this study may also be utilized to improve parent-teacher relationships and to reinforce learning-at-home curricula.

Statement of the Problem
       
Early childhood researchers have reported that young children learn best through activities that support the development of the whole child.  Because of national concern with accountability, competition, testing and back-to-basics, an over-emphasis has been placed on academics and single-subject teaching (Elkind, 2007 Ornstein, 2002 Perrone, 2000). In response to these concerns, early childhood programs may focus the curriculum on the teaching of academic skills (Morrison, 2004).  These factors have led to narrowly-defined curricula, which deny young children valuable life experiences.  Parents who want their child to be prepared academically may have concerns regarding preschools that adopt the play-based curriculum.  Therefore, a study of the parents perceptions of play-based early childhood curriculum may provide information useful to teachers and administrators when planning strategies for implementing successful preschool education.

Rationale

With the demand for effectiveness, test achievement scores, and accountability, most preschool programs have adopted and reinforced the academic-skills approach and have used play as a recreational period rather than a learning medium.  In an Oregon statewide survey sent to all kindergarten teachers and all principals with first-grade teachers, Hitz and Wright (1998) found that sixty-four percent of kindergarten teachers, sixty-one percent of principals and seventy-two percent of first-grade teachers reported that formal academic instruction is more prevalent in kindergarten than it was 10 to 20 years ago.  Creative expression may be considered not as important as cognitive development, and creativity may be viewed as not contributing to the development of thinking and problem solving.  Consequently, can it be that academic instructions and other practices have been adopted, even though most of the practitioners considered them developmentally inappropriate

Early childhood educators have shown concern with the type of instruction used in their education programs.  Practices used in pre-kindergarten and kindergarten classes reflected an environmentalist-behaviorist view, even though teachers reported having other views.  From a study of teacher practice, Hatch and Freeman (1988) found that two-thirds of early childhood teachers were implementing programs that are in conflict with their philosophies concerning childrens learning.  Early childhood experts have long asserted that programs for young children should provide for the development of social, emotional, physical, cognitive, and creative skills, but there appears to be a gap between researchers recommendations and teachers practices (Bredekamp, 1997 Logue, Eheart,  Leavitt, 1996).              

Parents are the deciding authority when it comes to the type of education that their children receive.  Their perceptions and, therefore, their decisions are typically influenced by their own beliefs, experiences, and attitudes.  Additionally, the views of parents who are not involved with implementing programs for young children are affecting the curriculum.  It has been reported that in response to demands for accountability and to parental pressures, many early childhood curricula are being narrowed by focusing on more academic and subject-centered teaching (Meisels, 1989).  Therefore, it is important to assess parental attitudes toward the play-based curriculum, and then share with them the knowledge that such curricula have been reported to improve the social skills and academic preparation of young children, by inspiring learning through developmentally appropriate activities.  

Motivation

As a preschool owner and educator, I am interested in how parents perceive a play-based curriculum and whether their decision to enroll their child in a play-based curriculum is borne from their understanding of the program or from other factors.  I personally believe in the play- based curriculum and would like to find out if this attitude is shared by the parents and, if not, what misperceptions they may have regarding such a curriculum.  My clients are informed of our play-based curriculum at enrollment.  I am, however, sometimes confronted by less than enthusiastic believers.  Does the parents attitude towards play change as the child gets older  I am hoping through this study to understand how these parents view play.  This study will help me immensely as a business owner and educator.  An understanding of a parents perception of the curriculum will help me to provide and communicate realistic expectations for the program and its benefits to young children.

Keywords

Preschool programs refer to the pre-kindergarten programs that are geared towards preparing
children ages 2-4 years old for kindergarten.  The programs offer various services for different age groups and adopt different curriculum models.  In this study, preschool programs refer to the setting and object of the research work.

Curriculum Models refers to an educational system that combines theory with practice.  A
curriculum model has a theory and knowledge base that reflects a philosophical orientation and is supported, in varying degrees, by child development research and educational evaluation.  The practical application of a curriculum model includes guidelines on how to set up the physical environment, structure the activities, interact with children and their families, and support staff members in their initial training and ongoing implementation of the program. In this study, the model used by the preschool program is a play-based curriculum.

Play-based curriculum refers to the learning model for young children that are developmentally appropriate.
The model is child-centered, indicating that the learning experiences are designed to focus on how children discover and learn.

Developmentally appropriate practices practices that are designed for the age group served and implemented with attention to the need and differences of the individual children enrolled (Bredekamp, 1998 p. 53). In this study, this refers to the teaching practices of kindergarten teachers as it is manifested in their classes.
Goddard Schools franchised preschools that offer children an opportunity to learn in an engaging and creative manner where learning stations are provided for individual play.  The school adopts a play-based curriculum and focuses on seven learning domains personal and social development, language and literacy, mathematical thinking, scientific thinking, social studies, creative expression, and physical development.
Beliefs refer to a set of ideas or thoughts that a person finds important or that influences his or her feelings, attitudes, and behavior.  Beliefs are subjective and can be measured by asking participants to elucidate their thoughts on a certain topic or issue.

Attitudes refer to a social construct that is predetermined by a persons beliefs. If the belief is negative, then the attitude toward the issue or problem is also negative.  Attitudes are associated with stereotypes of what is socially acceptable.

Feelings refer to the affective component of an individuals belief and attitude towards a certain issue or topic.  Feelings are associated with the personal experience and evaluation of the said issue.

UnderstandingPerception refers to the totality of the individuals beliefs, attitudes, and feelings towards a certain issue or topic.

Summary of Chapter 1

The chapter provides the introduction of the topic and the problem that I would like to investigate.  The chapter is designed to provide the readers with an overview of the study and the key concepts that will be measured and analyzed.  The purpose and motivation for the current study provides the rationale and importance of the current study.  The next chapter will present the related studies and researches on play-based curriculum and parental choice of preschools. Chapter 2 Literature Review

This chapter presents knowledge and findings related to preschool programs and the play-based curriculum.  The goal of the chapter is to describe the context in which preschool programs, play-based curriculum, and parental choices have been studied in the past and the implications of research findings to current practice.

The literature review is organized from the general to the specific, which means that a general overview of preschool programs is provided, followed by a discussion of the play-based curriculum.  Studies on parental choice and perceptions are then incorporated to show how parental perceptions figure in recent studies on early childhood education programs.  The studies and materials used in this literature review were gathered from numerous article databases, personal readings, and library sources, the sources were identified by using keywords such as play-based curriculum, preschool, and parental choice.          

A Theoretical Perspective
Early childhood education has been established as an important point in the overall human development.  In the theoretical framework of education in the context of human development, education paves the way for affective, emotional, social and intellectual growth of the person starting at a young age.  Interestingly, in a more traditional and rationalist view, education has been regarded as a primary source for intellectual development (Blenkin  Kelly, 1996).  Although this is true, it already limits what development should be and how a person can take advantage of their access to educational channels.

Proof that intellectual development is a primary expectation in education, even during the early childhood years, was noted by Goodlad (1985).  Inevitably, as pointed out by the author, parents look for schools that will provide their child the support needed for their expected intellectual goals.  The author also mentioned that in a survey among parents as to their expectations from school and their perceptions on what their child should eventually attain with the program is based on the traditional view on what is intelligent.  The school is supposed to teach the student the academics because intelligence needs to be developed, as opposed to human values which are, according to some theories and some perceptions, to be fixed, as discussed by Mortimer Adler and Robert Hutchinson (Blenkin  Kelly, 1996).

This idea of education as instrumental to intellectual development can be related to the idea of the development of the philosopher-kings as can be seen in the discourses of Plato.  Other discussions have emphasized the role of education as the development of the mind as written by Richard Peters, and Paul Hirsts contribution as to education being instrumental to the development of the different areas across a childs rationality (as cited in Blenkin  Kelly, 1996).

However, it can be observed that the rise beyond academics has been evident, but at an early stage, early education students are typically expected to be developed and prepared for the long path towards intellectual development.  Apparently, the emergence of other developmental areas reflects a rejection of rationalism which cannot cope with the with the emotional side of human life, and the corollary of that is that it cannot handle the notion of individual human differences (Blenkin  Kelly, 1996).

Another theoretical platform as to the rational aspect of development and education is based on the idea of instrumentality this time, education is seen as the instrument of development, leading the child to eventually become functional according to the intellectual, economic, vocational and utilitarian functions.  What comes to mind here, according to Blenkin and Kelly (1996), is a view expressed by Rosseau that a child a man-in-the-making thereby his or her treatment should be reflected of that.  In addition, such treatment should also look(ing) for the man in the child, without considering what he is before he becomes a man (as cited in Blenkin  Kelly).

However, with the emergence of educational theories, education is now viewed at different facets.  The common notion when it comes to the priority of intellectual goals are now integrated with other aspects which further enhance what human development should be all about.  One of the most noted educational theories that have served as a foundation of education in the twentieth century are the works of John Dewey.  With the introduction of the experiential continuum, rationalism is rejected and the child or the student is viewed as a continuously developing person in which the learning process does not end.

This thereby points at education, as applicable in early childhood education, has also integrated that the early stages of learning are no longer for the purpose of preparing the child for intellectual goals, but rather, the main point of education is to establish the continuous experience of learning.  Which is why, as Blanken and Kelly (1996) pointed out, it is important for education to provide channels spanning across the affective domain and not just limited to intellectual development.

This explains why, over the years, in the development of early education models, many factors have been integrated which steps beyond the intellectual goals.  For one, Hurst (1997) noted that a childs environment is now taken into consideration.  An important component that has been highlighted is the relationship of the child with family, relatives, friends, and the immediate social realities of the child.  For one, in a culturally diverse society, it is an ideal scenario in which the child at an early age is also exposed to a culturally diverse environment.  Given that there are many changes that have been taking place, it is evident that these changes have been also reflected in educational policies and practices (Nutbrown, 2002).

Clearly, educational policies have become the main framework in the design of the school curricula.  However, despite the emphasis on the importance of the affective domain in education, these policies have become respondent to surveys that highlight the shortcomings on the skills of the students.  This is to say that the intellectual goals remain to be the priority because of the continuous importance of academic achievement (Nutbrown, 2002).

The pull between intellectual achievement and the affective domain can be regarded to have influenced the design of educational policies and even the strategies of many schools.  Finding the balance, apparenty, has been the greatest challenge of all.  However, from the perspective of the school, the element that critically plays into the foundations of the design is the perspective of the parents.  As it is the parents who enroll their child in these programs, schools therefore needs to highlight how its institution can provide the needs of the child.

The definition of a good school may therefore vary.  Again, there are the different degrees of challenges and considerations when it comes to packaging a school.  Such reputation is very critical for early education because this is considered as an important starting point of a childs development.  Generally, parents want to enroll their child in a good school, and generally, this good school has to meet the expectations and the goals of the parents for their child.  What is interesting is that, as Nutbrown (2002) pointed out, albeit these theoretical discussions on the workable educational models and platform for a more substantial view on child development, education remains to be defined according to the perception of the adults, and the parents play at least contributory role in the development of these educational strategies.

Early Childhood Education Programs

Early childhood education programs have been in existence in U.S. educational settings since the early half of the last century.  The term is synonymous to preschool and kindergarten in the sense that it advocates the learning of very young children (Ailwood, 2003). It is differentiated from daycare centers and childcare centers because the programs are guided by a curriculum emphasizing learning through a number of methods and approaches.  There is a strong focus on learning life skills and school readiness, while daycare centers only provide activities and child care services to young children.  Moreover, early childhood education programs are geared for three to five year-old children, while daycare centers also cater to much younger children.  The different curricula and instructional approach to the teaching of young children have been numerous and varied, often reflecting the educational reform or policy of the country or state.  For example, the present emphasis on academic excellence and accountability has swept the early childhood education programs into the teaching of skills and concepts that are not developmentally appropriate.

In the United States, the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) is the organization that represents the educational needs of young children and work closely with federal agencies in the promotion and evaluation of early childhood education programs.  The NAEYC advocated for the development of preschool and kindergarten programs that are developmentally appropriate and, hence, undertook accreditation of preschools meeting their quality standards.  Parents should be well aware that preschools having received accreditation have the highest standards and are following the rules and regulations that the organization has found to be most beneficial to children 0 to 8 years old. In their position statement, the NAEYC said that preschools should adopt curricula that are well-planned, challenging, developmentally appropriate, culturally and linguistically responsive, comprehensive, and promote the well-being of all children.  The NAEYC sets the standard from which preschools should be evaluated, but despite being the leader in early childhood education, preschools generally adopt their own curriculum according to state standards. There is a discrepancy, however, in what are deemed appropriate practices for preschools, as advocated by NAEYC and the current preschool programs available in the country.

Developmental theories, especially regarding cognitive development, stress that young children are not cognitively prepared to absorb abstract information and that they have a short attention span, both of which hamper their learning.  Teaching overly abstract concepts to young children can negatively affect their self-esteem they often fail in tasks for which they are not yet  developmentally mature enough to accomplish.  In a longitudinal study of preschool children Marcon (2002) revealed that children who experienced academically driven preschool curricula had lower rates of retention and poor grades compared to children who were in a child-initiated preschool program. Such findings have not prevented preschools from following academically-focused curriculums, as a majority of preschools were found to stress literacy, reading, and numbers (Marcon, 2002).

In a survey of early childhood programs and teachers in the country, it was found that most child-care centers are privately owned and are for-profit, although there has been an increase in the public school programs.  Moreover, the teacher-student ratios are more favorable in centers run by religiouscommunity groups than by private individuals. Most of the teachers are Caucasian and have attained a college degree, although type of degree and qualifications vary for each center.  Most children in said centers are ethnically diverse (Saluja, Early,  Clifford, 2002).  This finding suggests that preschools are run by private individuals or groups that may, or may not, adopt appropriate practices, but cater more to the expectations of the parents.  For example, a preschool that originally adopted a High Scope approach would later incorporate academics into their program, because parents demand that their children should have academically oriented lessons.  And, since preschools are not regulated by any government agency in terms of program offerings and standards, preschools do not think twice about tailoring their program to the demands of the parents, whether it is developmentally appropriate.

Parents need to be informed about the different early childhood education programs available in their locality they need to be aware of the learning philosophies and teaching methods of the teachers because of their impact on the children.  The concern over the quality and the preparation needed by young children before enrolling in preschool comes from the parents teachers on the other hand do not share the same expectations (West, 1993).  Teachers basically know that young children come to school with very little preparation and it is the job of the teachers to introduce children to the basics of language, letters, and numbers within the time that children spend in school (Bennett, Wood,  Rogers, 1998).  Parents on the other hand stress the need for having their child readied for preschool through home activities and role playing. Although this can help children become prepared for school, it may also place unnecessary pressure on the child, when preschool should be fun and not tedious.

Preschool Curriculum Models

Preschool curricula are numerous, with each having its own teaching philosophy and concentration.  Preschool curricula in America either strictly follow a key philosophy, such as Montessori, Reggio Emilia, or Waldorf, or focus on the educational objective of the curriculum, such as academic-based and play-based.  Whatever the program, the National Association for the Education of Young Children advocates the use of developmentally appropriate practices for all preschool curricula (Berk, 2001).  Developmental appropriateness indicates that young childrens cognitive, social, emotional, and physical development should be nurtured, encouraged, and reinforced in a learning environment that emphasizes creativity, play, and discovery.

In a survey of preschool programs in the early history of preschool education, the most widely adopted curriculum is Montessori (Dahlberg, Moss,  Pence, 1999).  This curriculum focuses on the childs pacing and needs for example, children in Montessori schools are not forced to take a test or to complete an activity in a given period of time.  The child can work on the activity as long as it takes himher to finish it.  Many parents have found this curriculum to be beneficial to their child, since it is not stressful.  Despite the self-pacing aspect of Montessori programs, children are required to work on literacy and numeracy skills using worksheets and other prepared activities.  The teacher serves as a guide rather than as an instructor. Children are given the independence to choose what they want to work on and whether they need help.  The Montessori approach is suited for children who would benefit from a hands-on approach and for those who might need special attention, since teachers provide individual attention to students (Haines, 2000).
The Goddard School has embraced an approach that has become popular in recent years. Goddard schools are franchised preschools located around the country, having their own set of learning goals through their branded Flex (Fun Learning Experience) curriculum and objectives. This curriculum follows the tradition of not rushing the child to complete an activity or worksheet.  The Goddard School focuses on the delivery of seven learning domains personal and social development, language and literacy, mathematical thinking, scientific thinking, social studies, creative expression, and physical development.  At the same time, the Goddard School adopts a play-based curriculum, by utilizing learning stations that encourage children to play. These stations aid in discovery, allowing allow children to learn in the classroom, while engaging in either solitary or group play.  The teacher serves as the facilitator and guide through teacher-student interactions and other activities (Wenner, 2009).

The Waldorf approach is a relatively new program that private preschools have adopted in the country it originated in Austria and has been a popular model.  The Waldorf approach is geared towards developing the spirit, soul, and body of the child.  Thus, Waldorf programs create nurturing environments for children so they can engage in creative play and discovery. Typical activities in Waldorf programs include painting, coloring, singing, reciting poems, building houses from boxes and pretend play. Generally, this approach is beneficial to all children, specifically  those who enjoy being in groups (MacNaughton  Williams, 2009).

The High-scope approach is based on the theory that children learn best when they are actively involved with people, materials, ideas, and events.  The children are given the freedom to choose their own materials and activities, and teachers support this type of independence.  The High-scope programs have been found to be effective despite their newness in the preschool arena.  The approach was originally designed for at-risk urban children it has also been used in conjunction with the Headstart programs initiated by the Federal Government.  The High-scope program identified key experiences that all preschool children should be able to have.  These include creative representation, language and literacy, movement, music, numbers, classification, time, and others.  The use of computer programs is essential to the preschool program, since carefully chosen educational games and software can increase the learning experience of the child (MacNaughton  Williams, 2009).

Among the practices used in developmentally appropriate classrooms is the integrated curriculum.  Jinnah and Walters (2008) define integration as the combining of separate elements to make up a whole in that the separate parts lack something.  In an integrated approach to curricular development, young children may engage in interactions that use math, science, social studies, or language knowledge and skills to solve problems and complete projects.  This curricular approach is represented through projects and learning centers that have been the hallmark of early childhood educators who have stressed the total development of the child (Kagan, 1995).
     
Childrens modes of learning and communication used in questioning, reporting, problem solving, and analyzing are supported through an integrated curriculum (Barbour, 1987 Bredekamp, 1987).  Saluja, Early and Clifford (2002), reported that the act of thinking automatically integrates cognitive, motor, and social-emotional development.  Early childhood educators have reported that childrens learning proceeds simultaneously, rather than in a tidy, segmented, hierarchical package (Christie  Enz, 1992).  Pellegrini (1980) stated that the integrated curriculum provides for maximum growth and eliminates subject-related distinctions.  This approach allows for flexibility in individuals and in group-time organization.

Academic-based curricula, or those that advocate the use of worksheets to teach children numbers and letters and reading, have been a popular component of almost all preschool programs.  The emphasis on learning numbers and letters is due to the competitive nature of formal schooling, standards, and standardized testing.  Parents often demand that their children be taught the said skills in preparation for kindergarten.  With the emphasis on academic achievement and grades, it is no wonder that many parents feel that the academic based curriculum is what preschools should be about (MacNaughton  Williams, 2009).  Even though studies repeatedly found the use of worksheets to be developmentally inappropriate for children in preschool, due to the fact that cognitive and motor abilities of young children have not been fully developed to work well on worksheet tasks, skill instruction through worksheets and drills continues to be an integral component of preschool programs.

A key component of a play-based curriculum is the use of learning centers throughout the classroom area.  There are spaces provided for art work with colors, paper, paint, pictures, tables, and chairs another area is set aside for pretend play, with a mini kitchen and a small house, where skills, such as brushing teeth, washing hands, and other life skills, are learned. Still, in another area is a reading center, where books are plentiful sofas or mats are placed to make reading comfortable.  The number of learning centers is limited only by the resources and the creativity of the teachers, although basic learning centers must be present in each classroom to ensure the quality of the program (Elkind, 2007).

Some kindergarten teachers are intimidated by the use of play in the classroom.  Perrone (2000) suggested that classroom teachers are those best suited for making decisions about using play in the classroom, but, because of earlier, negative experiences, many kindergarten teachers believe they are incompetent to provide play for young children.  Furthermore, teachers that do provide play experiences are often proceeding through instinct, because of a lack of information regarding appropriate play experiences of young children (Perrone, 2000).  At the same time, play-based teachers often are met with resistance, both from parents and from administrators, in the use of play in the classroom, as they are skeptical with the approach (Christie  Clements, 2003). Moreover, play-based teaching is not popular with kindergarten schools due to the emphasis on learning standards, mandated by the federal government, that require students to reach certain benchmarks.  It is evident that play-based teaching is viewed negatively by many parents, administrators, and some teachers, however beneficial it has been found for children (Benz  Christie, 1997).

Because of their relevance to the total development of each child, play activities that are integrated into the daily curriculum are offered once-a-week (Bredekamp, 1987). Bayless and Ramsey (1997) suggested that play be integrated throughout the day.  Their suggestions included using themes to enhance reading skills, to develop skills related to science and number and to support social development.  Others have suggested that play be used to support child growth development, as well as to support different aspects of curriculum.  Bergen (1998) stated that play experiences can enhance social and physical development, as well as creative expressions. Curran (1999) suggested that play be a part of learning centers dramatic play, outdoor play, rest time, special occasions, and listening games.  Bergen (1998) stated that, in addition to being a part of planned daily activities, play should be used spontaneously to support other curricular areas, to promote variety, and to provide transitions into activities.  Without a doubt, play can be used in the classroom setting.
There are many ways in which it can be utilized, either as a learning tool, instructional aid, or even as a recreational break from the rigors of daily classroom lessons and drills.  The problem, however, is that teachers are not receptive to the idea of using play in the classroom due to classroom management issues, teacher preparation, and the lack of instructional materials (Cannella, 1997).

In summary, most preschool curriculum models were created following the developmental stages of cognitive development, in line with Piagetian Theory. These models take into account that children learn differently from adults, and this recognition has influenced most preschool curriculum models over the past century.  The preschool curriculum models described above are known to be developmentally appropriate for children, except for the academics-based model, where there is heavy emphasis on rote learning and literacy and numeracy (Curtis Routledge, 2002).  Most parents are unaware of the different curricula used to help their preschool students learn whether the schools they send their children to have developmentally appropriate practices.  The following section provides a discussion of developmentally appropriate practices and the work that has been done in this area.

Developmentally Appropriate Practices
             
The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) advocates that all children should have access to developmentally appropriate curricula in preschool.  Thus, preschool programs should focus on the totality of the childs development and not just one or two aspects.  In this regard, programs that place emphasis on academics play or life skills, only, are not in accordance with the NAEYCs mandate.

Developmentally appropriate activities facilitate the active exploration of the childs interactions with adults, other children, and learning materials (Bredekamp, 1987).

Developmentally appropriate curricula provide children with the opportunity to work with other children in groups or engage in solitary activities.  Moreover, children can initiate, direct, and practice skills at any given time.  It is also important that materials, activities, and games are all concrete and relevant to children and are provided in a learning environment that favors unstructured thinking.  Moreover, developmentally appropriate practices are based on developmental and cognitive theories that help to inform the best methods for teaching young children (Bredecamp  Copple, 1997).  The term developmentally appropriate indicates that learning experiences are geared towards the cognitive, social, and psychological orientation of the child, in the knowledge that these practices cultivate the best conditions for the learning of young children.

Given that developmentally appropriate practices are mandated by early childhood education advocates, too many preschool programs do not adhere to the provisions of developmentally appropriate practices as a result of emphasizing academic instruction and the performance of state laws, policies, and standardized testing demands (Bridge, 2001).  Even with the existence of empirically validated curricula, many kindergarten teachers are mandated to use curricula that provide first priority to teaching subjects, relegating developmental needs as secondary (New, Mardell,  Robinson, 2005).  Many of these mandates concern standardized tests.  Early childhood and primary teachers are in agreement with the need for developmentally appropriate practices, but, because of the focus on specific scores from standardized tests, they are prevented from doing what is best for students (Bredekamp  Shepard, 1999).  There is also evidence that many early childhood teachers are choosing developmentally inappropriate practices, even without mandates (Bergen, 2002). Bredekamp (1987) states that developmentally inappropriate programs include learning activities that are mostly large-group oriented, teacher directed, as well as structured.  Instructional strategies that include whole group lectures, ( paper-and-pencil workbook exercises, and silent work at individually assigned seats are also inappropriate.  When children are forced to work on learning tasks in the manner that older children do, it places them in a precarious position in which they will come to perceive learning as tedious, difficult, frustrating, and stressful ( Bredekamp,1987).   When young children develop the said attitudes to learning, it is expected that they will eventually come to view learning negatively and, consequently, be prone to underachieving or to having a false sense of what learning should be. Coupled with inappropriate practices, parents also contribute to the undue stress of preschool learning by pitting one child against another, creating unconstructive competition that sets the child up to become competitive (Cannella, 1997).
       
Developmentally inappropriate practices have been found to cause stress in administrators, teachers, and children. In a study of kindergarten practices in Ohio, Hatch and Freeman (1988) reported that children were not the only ones affected by an inappropriate focus on academic skills. Teachers, principals, and supervisors were also found to be victims of stress because of the increased potential for student failure. Children, especially in the preschool age, do not have the cognitive skills to learn and master academic content such as reading and writing thus, it is almost expected that children would fail standardized exams (McMullen  Lash, 2004). Legislation against including kindergarten on academic achievement tests should be passed, since it is not needed. A study by Wiedey and Lichtenstein (1997) found that of seven student stressors reported by kindergarten teachers, academic tasks which were developmentally inappropriate caused the second most severe symptoms in students.  In their study, Burts et al. (1993) found that more stress-related behaviors were exhibited in developmentally inappropriate classrooms than in developmentally appropriate classrooms.
     
Developmentally inappropriate programs miss opportunities for optimal learning.  When children are tasked to work on activities and materials ill-suited to their cognitive abilities, they will develop adverse reactions to the materials children who are forced to read might not develop the love for reading, thereby limiting the kind of learning that the child should have developed (Gomez, Stone,  Kroeger, 2004).  Based on Piagetian understandings about how children learn, programs which stress single-subject teaching with an emphasis on academics lessen opportunity for growth in other areas (Peck et al., 1999).  Programs that classify information in discrete categories are providing learning experiences typically used with adults, not young children (Elkind, 1987).  Children learn differently from adults, and even Piaget, who was a cognitivist, believed that children learn best through play.  Play for young children is the manner in which they interact with other children and with objects that will teach them about the world.  When learning activities do not incorporate play or do not take into account the manner in which young children learn, then those activities become developmentally inappropriate.

Certification does not necessarily qualify a teacher to provide developmentally appropriate experience.  Bredekamp (1987) reported that teachers are certified by many states as qualified to teach four-and-five-year-olds, regardless of related teacher-specialized training or supervised experiences with children from this age group.  In many states, the scope of certification is kindergarten through third, or kindergarten through sixth grade, with little emphasis placed on planning and implementing the curriculum for kindergarten.  This leaves teachers inadequately prepared for planning an effective program for kindergarten, which results in the pushing down of philosophies, curricula, and methods from the upper grade levels (Grannuci, 1990).

Grannuci continued that, with teacher certification extending from kindergarten to sixth or eight grade, states run the risk of having certified kindergarten teachers who have no fieldwork experience with kindergarten children.  Such policies may be responsible for the increasing focus on academics in kindergarten programs.
       
An Educational Research Services study of kindergarten teachers perceptions of the primary focus of the program reflected the inconsistencies between certification and practice. The results of this nationwide study of 1,082 kindergarten teachers concluded that 8.1 percent of the respondents focused on child development while 62.9 percent focused on academic readiness (Gardner, 1986).  Coinciding with this response is Elkinds report (1987) with findings of similar conflicts between kindergarten teachers practices and what is actually appropriate for young children. It can be surmised that teachers focus on academic development rather than on what is appropriate for children this may be due to the heavy emphasis placed on teaching academic skills rather than on life skills.  Most of teacher training is geared towards the increase in academic performance as measured by statewide tests and accountability measures (Pajares, 1992).

Developmentally appropriate practices are said to be an ideal, rather than a reality. For example, many educators and learning specialists agree that preschools should adopt developmentally appropriate practices in the delivery of learning curriculum to young children, but the reality is that not many schools adhere to those practices (Reifel, 1999).  With the pressure to increase academic achievement, children are now being subjected to worksheets, letters, numbers, and simple arithmetic and science concepts even before they reach kindergarten.  A handful of preschools and teachers adopt developmentally appropriate practices. However,  instead of being the norm, they become the exception, as the idea is not very popular with parents, administrators, and teachers since it would entail additional work on the teachers part, and parents place premium on academic skills training (Roskos  Neuman, 1993).

Developmentally appropriate practices stress the use of play, exploration, and discovery in the classroom, and the most salient example of a developmentally appropriate practice in the learning of young children is the play-based curriculum. In the next sections, the play-based curriculum, and why it is the most appropriate for the education of young children, will be discussed in detail.  Likewise, attention will be given to the related studies on preschools and the play-based curriculum, and the attitudes of parents, teachers, and administrators towards the said curriculum model.

Play-based Curriculum

The play-based curriculum is endorsed by preschool educators because it is arguably the most appropriate learning environment for young children it supports their need for exploration, discovery, and attention.  For most educators, play-based curriculum is a must for preschool programs in concordance with other learning activities (McMullen, Buldu, Lash  Alat, 2004). The interest on play-based curriculum, however, has waned as an increasing number of parents demand that their children be introduced to skills such as writing, reading, and counting.  Moreover, parents have difficulty understanding what play-based curriculum is, and how it encourages learning and discovery.  Parents are not comfortable with the term play, as it denotes aimless activities without the benefit of any learning (Fromberg, 1998). Much of the misperception of play-based curriculum is brought about by the low value that parents place on play.

The play-based curricula can be also explained in its the principle of teacher-directed and child-initiated activities (Wood, 2004).  In essence, how this works is that learning through play is not left to chance, but is channeled through complex and resciprocal relationships, and is situated in activities which are socially constructed and mediated (Wood, 2004).  The challenge is the process and strategy that incorporates the subject disciplines with the activities, in which case, this shows how play in this context is not just about activity but there is also the art on how to make this strategy effective.

According to Wood (2004), the strength of play-based pedagogy is that it supports what can be considered as characteristics of effective pedagogy sustained shared thinking, joint involvement, and co-construction (21).  As apparently play-based pedagogies have been endorsed by early childhood educators, there remains the chalenge of how the effectively implement it.  It was found that in addition to the concerns of the content of the curricula, the process of finding the balance between adult-directed activities and the self-initiated activities of the children is not as easy to achieve.  The teachers and the school need to possess the ability and the skill to work these two together in order to come up with a good quality of play which works in the required context of accountability, performance and achievement.

In order to understand how play has come as an important practice in early chidlhood education, an understandig of its theoretical foundations is significant.  The theoretical support for play in education has been identified in the Piagetian and constructivist theories, in addition to its adherance to methodlogical orientations.  Relevant frameworks that support play are found in socio-cultural and activity theories, especially as to how play can affect behaviors and eventually, the childs learning (Wood, 2004).  Furthermore, There is susbtantial evidence that through play, children demonstrate improved verbal communication, high levels of social and interaction skills, creative use of play materials, imaginative and divergent thinking skills, and problem solving capabilties (Wood, 2004, 21).

Play-based curricula are more than just play although the main component of the learning experience is accommodated through play, the activities and learning stations designed for optimum learning are carefully planned-out activities that encourage learning through play (Grossman, 2004).  Children who are playing with blocks and putting puzzles together learn about relationships, size, and shapes and coordination (Duncan  Tarulli, 2003).  Additionally, their fine motor skills are developed and enhanced, preparing them for the grasping and control of pencils and crayons, utilized in later learning.  Children who work with paint and colors learn about relationships, colors, and cause and effect.  Learning to read, write, and count is not achieved simply by rote learning if parents and teachers want the best learning environment for their children, then learning these skills should be incorporated into play (Elkind, 2007).

Play is not as simple as it may seem when parents dismiss play as purely a leisure activity, they do not consider that play is a complex exchange of ideas and behavior between the child and another child, or between the child and the toy (Elkind, 2007).  When  young children are engaged in solitary play, it provides them the opportunity to explore the toy and to learn on their own (McCune  Zanes, 2001).  When a child plays with other children, heshe learns how to negotiate, compromise, and share with other children, as well as discover that other children have different views and experiences (Kim, 1999).  Play is not just play, it engages the senses, the cognitive process and the emotional aspect of the child.  Playing with puzzles, dolls, and pretend play draws out critical thinking, creativity, and imagination, which are all critical for cognitive development (Christie, 2001).

The play-based curriculum is suited for all young children it offers both the structure and the flexibility that children need at their age.  Playing is not harmful to children it is enjoyable, fun, and effective in introducing children to new concepts and ideas (Berk, 2001).  Since the activities and learning stations in play-based classrooms had been developed in accordance with cognitive, affective, and social skills, it is expected that children who go to play-based preschools have better adjustment and social skills compared to those who go to traditional preschools (Jones  Cooper, 2006).

The source of confusion and possible aversion to the concept of play as a learning method is that play is synonymous to activities that are purely for enjoyment and without purpose.  Parents, and even teachers, fail to realize that play engages the young child more than anything else in the classroom or even in their daily lives (Clayton, 2007).  It is in play that children learn about their world, their environment, and the people they interact with and build social skills that are important as they grow and become older.  Children also learn to make use of their fine motor skills, their imagination, and creativity during play.  During an interview with play-based teachers on the resistance of parents and administrators to the model, a number of teachers reported that they lacked support from their principals.  Further, these teachers stated that they bcame tired of their principals comments during classroom observation, because, when using play during classroom instruction, they were asked when will the children start to do the real work (Neuman  Roskos, 1997).  This would imply that some principals do not view play as a learning medium and, therefore, unecessary for classroom instruction.

Language development and reading are key areas encouraged by play-based curricula During play, a young child must communicate his or her wants and understanding of the play activity  to the other children.  In this manner, play encourages language usage and acquisition. In the same respect, children engaging in enjoyable activities, like book reading and exploration, are introduced to different words and letters, activating the mechanism for learning language and literacy (Frost, Wortham,  Reifel, 2001).  When children enjoy what they do, there is less risk of activities becoming stressful or taxing for them instead they develop a love for learning (Wilcox-Herzog, 2002).  Previous learning experiences become the basis for future learning, and the attitudes that children form towards learning.  It is the goal of educators to provide a positive learning experience so that children will come to enjoy and love learning (Fleer, 2009).

Other forms of play, such as drama, role playing, art sessions, and music, also encourage the development of the brain and cognitive abilities, which will be very useful when they go to formal schooling (Berk, Mann,  Ogan, 2006).  Children demonstrate their learning and mastery through play they imitate what they see in a fun and unthreatening environment.  In early-childhood, children engage in imaginative play to try out new songs, dances, and stories (Graue, Kroeger,  Brown, 2003).  Play also supports diversity and cultural differences as children are introduced to the rich and diverse cultural traditions of other races (Abbott, 1994).  One might think that the play-based curricula are too good to be true  one of the reasons why those who adopt play-based curriculum are often unopular with parents.  But, given the appropriate teacher training, sufficient resources and learning stations, and adequate materials and facilities, play-based curricula would be the best learning environment for preschool children (Grossman, 2004).

According to cognitive theorists like Jean Piaget, play is the key medium whereby interpersonal skills, discovery, exploration, and confidence are developed.  At the same time, play is initiated by children, enabling them to interact with other children or to engage in solitary play, which is common in young children (Fromberg, 1998).  The benefits of play are numerous, but play as a learning tool has not received the kind of attention and support those educators would like it to have.

Individual Benefits of a Play-based Early Childhood Curriculum

Beliefs, attitudes and perception on how children learn can range from the fundamentals of cognitive development to the discourse on learning theory.  Evidently, scholarly works in these areas play an important role in the formation of education theories, particularly on how to best formulate instructional strategies as based on the understanding how children learn.  However, common perception on learning is typcically associated with formal schooling environment, thus eliminating or minimizing the impact of learning channels even before the child steps into a school

The formative years of human development are crucial for more than one reason.  These early formative years serve as a period when self-regulation develops, including many key aspects pertinent to life for example, impulse and emotion control, self-guidance of thought and behavior, planning, self-reliance, and socially responsible behavior (Bronson, 2001 Kopp, 1991).  Self regulation is reflected in the preschool years by children showing signs of patience, through refraining from running after desired objects or by offering help to other children. Therefore, achieving self-regulation at an early age can equip children to meet complex challenges, which may include the day-to-day academic and social requirements of school to decision making on larger social issues in the later years (Frost, Wortham,  Reifel, 2008).

However, formation of a balanced self-regulation depends heavily on the quality of external stimuli, as early childhood is also the high season of imaginative play (Singer and Singer, 1990), a time when children dwell more on make-believe situations.  The noted psychologist Vygotsky (1. 1898, 3. 1933) also identified that make-believe play is one of the prime catalysts of human development.  Other researchers like Bronson (2001) and Eisenberg, Smith, Sadovsky and Spinrad (2004) thus identify self-regulation as the crowning achievement of early childhood.

Self-regulation is learned through the childs interaction with his or her environment.  According to Erikson, it is a developmental task that, when mastered by the child, signals that he or she is ready to move on to the next task, which involves industriousness and initiative.  Thus, play is beneficial to children in any form, and learning, when integrated into play, becomes more beneficial.  Even simple solitary play teaches children to focus their attention on a single object or activity this builds patience and perseverance that they can use in the more advanced forms of learning, such as visual discrimination and reading (Genishi, Dyson,  Fassler, 1994).

How a child learns is initially perceived on how the child responds.  According to Freeman (2009), a means to figure out how a child learns is through their native or instinctive responses, thus highlighting how these responses can be developed according to some form of strategic training.  It is through these responses that they indicate how a child may be inherently equipped when it comes to their eventual exposure to everyday life.

Learning, of course, is evident in the development of the range of skills a person goes through learning thereby begins with the development of manual skills,  and then memorization  A child thereby demonstrates the ability to learn when applying basic information such as identifying objects and then gaining the ability to add more moves to basic movement.  Freeman (2009) mentioned that at these early stages, a child already shows signs of the psychology of learning.  Natural responses of children, according to the author, can be further assessed according to transfer of training and economy in mental work (Freedman, 2009, 2).

In this case, Freedman (2009) pointed out that the skills learned by a child are actually responses such as speech, inner choice , and a range of other responses that can be also hidden.  This thereby highlights the complexity of learning and development, in which case there is the combination of the internal and external factors that contribute to how a child learns.  These internal factors include the physiological and biological characteristics of the child which basically provides the individual the basic hardware to learn, and then the external aspects which are also formative as these forces interact with the internal components.

Cognitive development naturally plays a central role in how children learn.  Wood (1998) mentioned a series of cognitive development theories that emerged in the past centuries, from Piaget to Vygotsky.  Piaget would play an important role in the formation of learning theories in the later part of the 20th century, especially in terms of his explanation on the psychology of learning.  Wood also mentioned Pavlovs theories which are also foundations of the relationship between response and learning.  In this case, stimuli plays an important role to encourage learning mainly based on the need to fulfill certain desires whether it is hunger or curiousity.  This, learning theory can be explained based on the Stimuli-Response dynamics (Wood, 1998).

In Richardsons (1998) work, the author enlisted the many theories and models of cognitive development.
The nativist model, as the author explained, is predeterministic.  Contemporary theories on nativism in the context of learning, as Chomsky explained, demonstrates the presence of certain inborn qualities that fill in the gaps of the daily experience.  This is to say that although a child may learn how to speak based on what he or she hears, not everything the child hears is perfect, thus, a child has the inborn ability to learn to speak withouth entirely depending on what his or her environment teaches.  This can then be demonstrared in the following diagram as Richardson illustrated (1998, 44).

Mental association is another branch of cognitive development.  With its roots traced to ancient Greece, association is based on the concept that individuals have innate mental faculties that allow them to create mental associations that will help them learn.  Hence, the registration and storage of memories among individuals are based on how they create specific association systems with the real world.  Which is why when children learn, there is a sense of imitiation and ability to identify objects with other information such as an association with a word with an image (Richardson, 1998).

There is also of course a wide range of cognitive development theories which basically aim to explain a significant component of learning.  This can also touch on psychological aspects such as motivations to learn and how certain learning approaches are more effective in particular individuals but are inefficient among others.  Such uniqueness has been supported even as early as the infancy stage as represented by how the brain is wired (Meltzoff, 2002).
Beadle (1971) presents a developmental timeline as to what happens to the child at the moment of birth.  Beadle touches on how physiological factors from the unborns time in the womb can also contribute to his or her eventual development.  For instance, unborn children who had problems due to lack of oxygen can affect their capacity to learn when they grow up.  The same is true to how the childs metabolic process would perform at this stage. Once a child is born, there is also the challenge of adjusting to the extremes, particularly on how the newborn adjusts to the new environment.  In any case, should this baby, from the fetal to the newborn stage, encounter problems, the baby learns to adjust to his or her environment.  Hence, as Beadle pointed out, even at this very early stage a child is already learning.

There are literature that specifically tackle how children learn certain skills.  One of such discussion is presented by OGrady (2005) in which the author addressed how children learn languages.  Interestingly, OGrady gave an important insight in terms of this language learning process Childrens talent for language is strangely limited --- theyre good at learning language, but not so good at knowing what to say and what not say (1).  Children learn words by simply picking up the sounds made by the people around him or her, and eventually, from sounds, words are then picked up.  Depending on the rate of development of the child, a one year-old can already demonstrate the ability to utter about ten words, whereas some two year-olds may already form telegramatic sentences.

OGrady (2005) explained two learning styles that can be adopted in learning languages among children.  The first is the analytic style which refers to the approach in which the child breaks the speech into smaller and manageable components, thus they usually end up uttering articulated yet short terms.  The second is the gestalt style of language learning where the child learns by means of memorization.  Because the child memorizes the words according to the sequence adults use, they get to utter bigger chunks of words.
However, as the author pointed out, children do not learn language in a strict manner, thus there is the combination of the analytical and gestalt approaches.  Thus, this shows that when it comes to learning styles, there is no right or wrong approach.

Perceptions and attitudes on how children learn become evident on how parents make their choices when it comes to their childs education.  For instance, if parents do not believe that children can develop according to the forces of the environment (hence, a naturally smart kid is simply smart), they do not put that much emphasis on added effort on the role of education.  On the other hand, some parents may not understand cognitive development at all, thus their approach to their childs education is based on the generic approaches to learning, thereby already limiting the childs potential and capability in learning.

An interesting point in these beliefs, attitudes and perceptions is how parents may overlook the academic bases of theory.  As a result, the childs development is already overlooked at the moment of conception.  Which is why as can be seen in the previously revivewed works, a common element that these theories have is the belief that learning already starts outside the sphere of formal education, and that in fact, the forces that influence learning is already apparent even before the child is born.

The learning theory also highlighted its fundamentals as found in the dynamics of stimuli and response.  Evidently, this shows that learning can be encouraged as long as there is substantial sources of stimuli in which case the child can respond by means of interaction and other venues.  Freeman (2009) actually mentioned that play is an important stimuli-response activity, thus showing that play is not just for recreation and it is in fact integral in the learning process.

Key Aspects of Play

When children are engaged in any form of play, whether make-believe, pretend play, or listening to stories in a playful manner, they become more receptive to learning concepts and relationships than if asked to work on worksheets or exercises and drills.  This natural and integrated relationship between play and childrens development has always attracted the interest of researchers. A well-established consensus among the professionals engaged in preschool proceedings (Alliance for Childhood, 2006 NAEYC  NAECSSDE, 2003), because it is their regular observation that play in early childhood is the greatest instrument for cognitive, social, emotional, physical, and moral development, irrespective of their socio-economic, cultural, and linguistic backgrounds (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2006 Elkind, 2007 Zigler, E.  Bishop-Josef, S., 2006).  Play is the universal language of young children it has been observed that children, regardless of culture and socio-economic status, can play with each other and communicate and interact.  This would mean that play does not have to be language specific, nor does it need to be culturally sensitive.  Instead, it can be a great medium for universal learning.

While the definition of play suggests a certain lack of structure, the play-based curriculum does not refer to anything that resembles a do-as-you-like or go-as-you-like environment.  Rather, play provides a tool that allows teachers to exploit the power of the childrens developing ideas, interests, and competencies (Weis, 1999).  Play cannot be an element isolated from the main curriculum rather, it should enable children to develop the appropriate knowledge and skills for becoming successful citizens in their later years.  Since the play-based curriculum is not merely letting children play, it should be designed carefully, and should be capable of assisting in the integration of learning goals.

Structured Studies are No Match to Play

Several studies provided evidence that structured, mainly teacher-directed and instructional, models of teaching failed to evoke the interest in children and, consequently, proved ineffective in creating academic success.  The techniques allowing childrens self-initiated activities and interests produced results that are far more positive.  The researchers also voiced their concerns over the possibility that an over-use of didactic teaching can suppress child-initiated learning, undermining young childrens self-confidence and motivation to learn (Chang, Stipek,  Garza, 2006 Shonkoff  Phillips, 2000 Singer, Golinkoff,  Hirsh-Pasek, 2006).

Grossman (2004) demonstrated how very young children focus more on emotional security. She also pointed out that didactic processes of learning at this stage are not developmentally appropriate and can cause many problems, such as discouraging children from taking risks.  Risk-taking should be practiced, since problem-solving involves an element of risk. Grossman also reminded us that, in a play-based curriculum, each day provides opportunities to learn about reading, writing, and mathematics through real, meaningful situations.  For example, when children set the table for snacks, providing one napkin, one straw, and one box of milk for each child, or when they string beads to match the pattern on a card, or wait their turn because there is room for only four children at the art table, they are learning mathematics through engagement with their environment (Grossman, 2004).

Grossman (2004) effectively countered providing evidence of learning in the absence of worksheet by suggesting the creation of portfolios for each child that contain samples of the childs works, teachers observations, and checklists that record the childs skill development.  The importance of play for a young childs development cannot be understated (Vukelich, 1994).  Play gives children opportunities to understand the world, interact with others, express and control emotions, develop symbolic capabilities, attempt novel or challenging tasks, solve problems, and practice skills.  Play may contribute to the development of posture, movement, and self-sufficiency.  There also appears to be a positive relationship between the frequency and complexity of young childrens play and IQ, problem-solving, creativity, language and literacy, and social competence (Isenberg  Quisenberry, 2002).

What Happens When Children Play

The fact that play raises every competency that is important to school success is gaining acceptance as supporting empirical evidence mounts (Isenberg  Quisenberry, 2002 Singer, 2006). For example, researchers have already established that high-quality pretend play is related to childrens ability to think abstractly and to evaluate things from others perspectives (Bergen, 2002 Berk, Mann,  Ogan, 2006 Singer, Singer, Plason,  Schweden, 2003).  In addition, researchers also documented the connections between the complexity of childrens pretend play and early literacy, mathematical thinking, and problem-solving (Singer et al., 2006 Smilansky, 1990 Van Hoorn, Nourot, Scales,  Alward, 2006).

Shonkoff and Phillips (2000) present three basic reflections that serve as clues to the process of development taking place when children are at play while at play, children are exposed to many opportunities to apply mental representations of the world to new objects, people, and situations.  These experiences help develop their ability to handle future academic learning. While at play, children tend to integrate all types of learning, e.g., physical, social, emotional, intellectual, and language development.  They become engaged in what they are interested in, and they have a natural motivation to learn (Shonkoff  Phillips, 2000).

The above reflections point to the possibility that when children are in their favored environment, they grasp and retain more skills and concepts than those passed on to them through didactic patterns of teaching. Another significant point emerges from the review that children may excel when they are able to develop new concepts through activities that occur naturally to them (Trawick-Smith  Picard, 2003).  This premise again brings play to the forefront, as play can afford these activities by providing such tasks as counting, sorting, sequencing, predicting, hypothesizing, or evaluating.  They meet those challenges with a motivated state of mind (since they are playing), and, during the play process, the children perceive the significance of such tasks and stretch themselves to master them (Hirsh-Pasek, Michnick,  Eyer, 2004).

Consequently, it is of little wonder that researchers recommend policies, such as adopting preschool learning standardsfoundations, that identify play as a primary method for early learning adopting preschool curricula that emphasize play and child-initiated activities sufficiently funding in-depth training and ongoing education that explain the importance of play to cognitive development conducting parent education programs that can convince the parents about the importance of play in cognitive development  and consistently assessing teacher-documented observations of children during play additionally, high-stakes testing of preschool children would be ruled out (Tepperman, 2007).

The noted psychologist Vygotsky (1933) also regarded play, especially make-believe play, as a crucial element towards childrens development as early as in 1930s, when he pointed out that
Play creates a zone of proximal development in the child. In play, the child always behaves beyond his average age, above his daily behavior in play it is as though he were a head taller than himself. As in the focus of a magnifying glass, play contains all developmental tendencies in a condensed form and is itself a major source of development (Vygotsky, 1930-351978, p. 102).

Other developmental theorists of the Twentieth Century also viewed play in a preschoolers life from many dimensions, such as regarding it as the private avenue of the preschoolers to practice and solidify symbolic schemes (Piaget, 1936), as a form of wish fulfillment that helps them in overcoming fears or anxieties (Freud, 1959), or a means for exploring social roles (Erikson, 1950).  Undoubtedly, play is an important aspect of a childs life, even without integrating it into classroom learning.  Clearly, these early theorists recognized the myriad benefits of play. It would be more sensible to integrate play into learning experiences instead of leaving it out or stereotyping it as without aim or benefit (Hanline, 1999).

The play-based curriculum has been integrated into progressive preschools in the United States, with the growing awareness of play as an excellent medium in which children learn and explore their world.  However, there continues to be a misunderstanding of what the play-based curriculum is about and why it is necessary for young children (Sutton-Smith, 1997). Parents are especially skeptical about the play-based curriculum, several demanding that their child be taught letters and numbers at preschool. Some infant school teachers stressed play and deemphasized intellectual pursuits, while others immediately tried to teach the alphabet and reading.  Often, it was the parents who insisted that infant schools stress rigid classroom discipline and teach their children how to read. Indeed, many infant school instructors who opposed teaching two- and three-year old children how to read were forced to do so under pressure from the parents.  As we shall see, this debate over how very young children should be educated came to play an important role in the eventual demise of the infant schools. (Vinovskisp. 156).

The last section of this review presents the studies and literature on parental choice and preschools, their perception of preschool programs, and the kind of information they seek when considering preschools for their children.

Overall, the support for play in school has been based on studies that demonstrate how these activities can further a childs development because play simulates many human functions.  According to Stephens (2009), it is through play that a child is placed to reach his or her full potential because of its overall nurturing of development.  What is interesting is that albeit the support for play in the academe, what can conflict the full support for this strategy is that it may be seen as a distraction from the perceived important points and priorities of early child education, and that is through the intellectual goals that parents generally intend to establish in their children.  The reason for being so is due to the reality that much has been emphasized on how academic achievement translates to success.  Although this is not to say that achievement and success are not related, such perception has overlooked the other needs of the child, especially in terms of developing their other intelligences.

Another challenge is that not all play initiatives have been a success.  As previously mentioned, initiating play in the early education classroom may be easy in terms of encouraging the interests of the children.  However, the learning aspects have been a disappointment in some cases, especially if the concept is not effectively translated into classroom practices, play in the classroom results to mere play as the child plays at home.

Another argument is raised by Guha (1996) who mentioned that some believe that play is simply a routine for children.  Furthermore,

Play is part and parcel of childrens natural behaviour embedded in their day-to-day spontaneous living.  It forms an important part of pre-school and out of school early learning.  The school has to acknowledge it and build on it, but the schools function is different.  Although the learning which accompanies day-to-day living and play maybe uniquely valuable of the individual, it also has several drawbacks.  It is haphazard, fragmentary, and because it is unplanned, it may lack direction. (Guha, 1996, 57)

Wood (2004) mentioned that teachers have also acknowledged the difference between the theories that surround play in the classroom and their practices.  Wood mentioned a study teachers teachers identified instances in which their actual practice in the classroom as compared to the concepts of play did not match.
Admittedly, teachers mentioned instances wherein they over- or under-estimated the competencies of the children which would also prove to be frustrating for the students.  Among the mediating constraints identified by the teachers are as follws (from Wood, 2004, 22)
pressures and expectations from parents, colleagues, and school inspectors
lack of time for adult involvement
the structure of the school day (timetable, fixed times for school assemblies and outdoor play)
downward pressures from the national curriculum, and the emphasis on literacy and numeracy

Based on these, it can be gathered that the issue with play-based curricula is that it may not be effective at all because it is routine for children to play.  In addition, parents may think that through play, their child is not getting educated properly, especially as education is mostly concerned on the academics and literacy.  Even though play is normal in early childhood education programs, the amount of play that is integrated may be questioned.  This is especially true as parents these days are getting exposed to other educational strategies which emphasize more on academic and intellectual development as opposed to the multi-disciplinary aspect of development.

Factors that Influence Parental Choice of Preschools

Preschool programs range from being privately owned and managed to state funded programs from being learning centers to day care facilities from teacher instruction to parent cooperatives.  Parents are then faced with the huge task of finding the most suitable and beneficial preschool program for their child.  The options are endless and factors, such as location, fees, schedule of classes, and friendships, influence the decisions parents make (Brain  Klein, 1994).

Practicality

Although preschool programs are widely state funded, the number of private schools and secular preschool programs are also extensively available.  It is a given that parents who find state-funded preschools inadequate would seek other preschools parents who often choose high- quality preschools do so with the goal of providing the best care and learning environment for their children (Maddaus, 1990).  But, a majority of parents do not have the same frame of mind sometimes, preschools are seen as a place where children can be left without parental supervision, providing the parent the opportunity to work or to take a rest from the daily toil of childrearing (Brain  Klein, 1994).

In a survey of parents, the most cited reason for sending their child to preschool was that there was no one to care for the child at home.  It is a reality that most parents work with the pressing economic crisis, it is often necessary to have both parents working or, sometimes, to work two jobs (Gorard, 1997).  In another study (Isenberg  Quisenberry, 2002), it was found that parents send their children to preschool because most of the childs friends go to preschool.  Moreover, the preschool of choice usually is the one nearest to their residence.  For city parents, preschools tend to be near their place of work where it is easily accessible.
In terms of the schedule of sessions, there is a difference in the choices made by parents who both work outside of the house, as compared to parents with one partner who remains at home.  Working parents favor a full week schedule, because of the convenience and the assurance that they can work throughout the week.  On the other hand, parents who stay at home find a three-day-per-week schedule sufficient for their preschool age children (David, Davies, Edwards, Reay,  Stabding 1997).  They feel that three days are enough for their child, for such a schedule allows them more time to spend with their child.  It would make sense that stay-at-home parents want a shorter class schedule than working parents, since they are available and can care for their child.

In another study, parental choice of preschools was analyzed using market conditions of preschool programs.  It is argued that when parents have the ability to choose a school for their child, they want high-quality education, and schools would be forced to develop strong and competitive programs to entice parents to enroll their child (Cryer  Burchinal, 1997).  Under these conditions, parents see schooling as an investment that will benefit their child thus, the choice is often influenced by how good the school is in terms of facilities, curriculum, and academic standards (Maddaus, 1990). In this precept, preschools that fail to recruit and increase enrollment would lose funding and eventually close operation.  Thus, parental choice contributes to market competition, resulting in improvement of preschool programs.

Quality of Preschools

Parental choice regarding selection of elementary and high schools has been the focus of previous research because of the importance placed on academic performance and achievement (Maddaus, 1990).  However, compulsory education leaves parents limited choices in the sense that schools are regulated by the government, and course offerings and standards are more or less at par.  Parental choice relates to teacher qualification, school excellence, and facilities but is less relevant for curriculum (Gorard, 1997).

Preschool is not compulsory. However, based on a survey of preschool enrollment in recent years, an ever increasing number of three- and four-year old children are being enrolled in preschool programs. Although the programs are state funded, it is assumed that the same trend is true for privately run preschools.  Since preschool is not a prerequisite for kindergarten, it is evident that parental choice is a major factor for deciding in which preschool to enroll their children (Maddaus, 1990).  Parents have their own expectations of what preschool should be this may invariably influence the kind of programs that preschools offer.  Contrastingly, existing preschool programs may influence parental expectations.

Very little research has been done on parental choice of preschools.  Previous findings stressed the factors that influence parents choices, but none focused on preschool curricula (Reay  Lucey, 2000). It would appear that preschool curricula are the least of the concerns of parents when they consider schools for their young child (Maddaus, 1990).  It is also apparent that parents choose schools without fully understanding the kind of program in which their child will be enrolling.  However, when parents feel discontent, and when preschools do not live up to their expectations, parents are quick to scrutinize the schools program and complain.  In this respect, knowing and understanding the preschool curriculum would lead to better choices (Hausman  Goldring, 2000).

In reality, parents do care about their childs education.  The choice for a preschool may be utilitarian at best, but most parents do their best to choose a preschool program beneficial to their child, especially in terms of kindergarten preparation.  Studies found that parents would like a preschool to be accessible and to have quality facilities among other required preschool components.

Preschool Curriculums

Not many parents include the preschool curriculum as a deciding factor when they look for preschools for their children at best, they only consider it when they have already enrolled their children in a certain school.  There are a number of preschools, each with its own program and curriculum, and parents are always welcome to ask about the programs and the classroom treatment of their children (Kirk  Anicich, 1996).  Most preschools invite parents to observe classes so they can acquire an understanding of the learning environment in the school, but most parents who observe classes are not aware of what the curriculum is.  They pay more attention to how good and kind the teacher is, how excellent the facilities are, and whether their child will be given the attention he or she needs during classes (Stipek  Seal, 2001).

In another survey, it was found that parents often asked how soon their child would be able to read and inquired about the achievement rates of the students in terms of reading and mastery of academic skills.  Parents also heavily stressed that they would want their child to learn how to solve problems and to learn about geography and culture (Saracho, 2002).  This may indicate that parents often lean towards academic-based curriculums or traditional schools because of the emphasis placed on improving academic skills and performance.

Parents who were asked whether they considered the curriculum of the preschool when enrolling their child reported that they did not give a great deal of consideration to curriculum instead, they relied on the recommendations of friends and the popularity of the school among their circle of friends (Moore  Derman-Sparks, 2003).  Moreover, parents generally do not see play-based curriculum as an effective curriculum program.  In fact, they argued that play can be incorporated in preschools as recreation or as an ice breaker during the days activities they doubted whether their child would learn anything while playing (Morrow  Rand, 1991).

On the other hand, a small number of surveyed parents, who had already enrolled their children in a play-based preschool program, were receptive and positive about play-based curricula (Levin, 2000).  They reported that they were aware that play is an important part of a childs life, especially if children can learn during play.  However, this sampled group of parents is diminutive in number only a handful of parents had positive attitudes towards the play-based curriculum.

Generally, parents know very little about preschool curriculums.  They enroll their child in a particular program with the expectation that their child will be taught the basic skills needed for kindergarten (Lubeck, 1998).  When parents expectations are not met, or when they perceive the program negatively, they question the curriculum, asserting they were not aware of the curriculum initially.  Parents who disagree with, or feel strongly about, the curriculum may eventually pull their child from the school, finding a preschool that does meet their expectations.

Implications of Previous Research

There are a number of preschool programs available to parents, each with its own set of philosophies and objectives among the more popular are Montessori, High Scope, Reggio Emilia, Waldorf, play-based, and academic-based.  The more specialized preschool programs adopt either of the mentioned preschool curricula, but most state-funded programs are said to adopt a combination of play-based and academic-based curricula.

Parents seem to favor academic-based programs out of concern for  the future academic performance of their children.  The preschool program selections parents make for their children are influenced by a number of factors knowledge and understanding of the different preschool curricula are not among those factors.  Parents  frequently prioritize choices in terms of convenience to the parents, not in terms of in terms of learning benefits to their children.

Educators advocate the use of developmentally appropriate practices for preschool education however, these practices are rarely implemented. Schools, especially state-funded institutions, adhere to the academic or worksheet curricula, influenced by the importance of academic achievement, even in kindergarten.  Moreover, developmentally appropriate practices are prescribed, but are not actually provided to children because of the effort and preparation required by teachers who are often ill equipped for the task.

Play-based curricula have created negative perceptions in parents because of their inability to understand the core principles upon which a play-based curriculum is based.  Some parents are unenthusiastic about the concept of play, since it appears not to lead to any viable learning.  Parents and possibly some teachers fail to recognize the benefits of play, particularly in young children because of these misperceptions.

Summary of Chapter 2

As previous research has demonstrated, parental choice of preschool typically does not consider the type of curriculum of the preschool program or its impact on the learning experience of the child.  Play-based curricula have largely been misunderstood it is presumed that parents do not understand the play-based curriculum concept and, therefore, are not maximizing the learning potential of their child by supporting the curriculum activities.  This research study endeavors to know and understand parents attitudes toward the play-based curricula to determine whether they feel positively or negatively about it. Chapter 3 Methodology
This chapter provides a layout of the theoretical framework, research method, design and data collection, and analysis of the proposed research study.  The main goals of this chapter are to demonstrate that the study will be conducted using effective and ethical methods, and to provide information that can assist future researchers in replicating this study.

Theoretical Framework

Parental choices of preschools often follow a decision-making process that weighs the advantages and disadvantages of a certain action it would follow that the decisions parents make are based on their assumptions and beliefs about the benefits of preschool programs.  In drawing from a critical perspective, I believe that preconceived notions can often create situations where certain ways of knowing privilege some over others.  From a critical theoretical perspective, no universal truth or set of laws or principles can be applied to everyone.  Rather, knowledge is political and is used in ways that privilege some while simultaneously marginalizing others (Ryan  Grieshabler, 2004).

This can now be examined at a theoretical context.  Critical approaches examine social conditions and uncover oppressive power arrangements.  The theories found in this paradigm critique the known structure of social arrangement and deny the existence of any true enduring one.  Critical researchers suggest, instead, that a certain group has an explicit political agenda, which conflicts with other groups interests.  No aspect of life is interest free, even science.  Researchers main job often consists of identifying existing contradictions in order to help people be aware of what is really going on, and to create new forms of language that will enable predominant ideology to be exposed, and for competing ideologies to be heard (Littlejohn, 2000).

The critical researcher embraces themes including social struggles, a critique of society, and envisions new possibilities (Creswell, 2007).

Theories complementing this concept usually critique the structure of social arrangement and deny the existence of any true enduring one.  Instead, they suggest that a certain group has an explicit political agenda, which struggles with culture and other groups interests.  Their main job often consists of identifying existing contradictions, in order to help people be aware of actual circumstances, and to create new forms of language that will enable predominant ideology to be exposed and competing ideologies to be heard. (Littlejohn, 2000).  I critiqued the known structure of the social and political arrangement in the sphere of early childhood education with the hope of better understanding parents beliefs of a play-based early childhood curriculum and its benefits to the educational growth of young children.

The importance of preschool education to later academic achievement has been demonstrated in various studies in which these programs have been supported and encouraged by government agencies.  A benefit to the parents with busy lives is that preschool enables them to work without having to worry about the welfare of their children.  However, preschool has also become a source of social pressure for parents and children alike. Preschools have become competitive, often at the expense of the learning and fun that children are supposed to experience.

Parents, who ultimately choose the kind of preschool program their child receives, are susceptible to the influence of a number of factors.  Parents often base their decisions on their personal beliefs and needs, such as their work schedule, location of the preschool, fees, admission processes, safety, word of mouth, previous experience and others (Reay  Lucey, 2000). With the reality of the failing academic performance of the nations students, parents often feel the pressure to place their children in preschool programs that emphasize academic skills, such as reading, writing, and arithmetic.  There are also preschools that adopt a more rigorous approach to instruction and introduce concepts that are beyond the developmental stage of young children with the goal of preparing children for kindergarten.  Most educators advocate that preschools should follow developmentally appropriate practices, and that they should be play-based since children learn more when they are having fun and experiencing the activities concretely (McCune  Zanes, 2001).

Determining whether parents assess the different learning models that preschools adopt is difficult, since little research exists on the reason for parental choices or on their understanding of the preschool learning curricula.

The social constructivist theory is the force that determines this study.  It claims that individuals perceptions of the reality around them shape their thoughts and behavior (Berger  Luckman, 1966) and that the construction of meaning is a process forged in the crucible of everyday interactionmeanings are negotiated, exchanged, and modified through everyday interactions with others (Rosenholtz, 1989, p. 3).  It also says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiencing and reflecting upon those experiences.

It can be gathered that in Vgotskys social constructivist theory, parents form an understanding when it comes to identifying the fit academic environment for their child based on their expectations.  This explains why some parents prefer schools with certain specializations, and at the same time, schools also package themselves according to a strategic educational model that can appeal to the expectations of the parents.

Hence, it can be seen that some schools may be concentrated more on art or the sciences, and parents respond to such packaging according to what they believe is best for their child in terms of their next steps of development.

Such perception is based on the belief that as learning is a continuous process, the next stages are crucial, and it is through the social exposure of learning, as guided by adults, that young students are able develop according to certain molds.  Thus, I too subscribed to the view that, when we encounter something new, we have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experiences perhaps changing what we believe or discarding the new information as irrelevant.  In any case, we are active creators of our own knowledge. In this study, I will ask questions as well as explore and assess the information I gather from the study, which will identify the main aspects or misconceptions surrounding a play-based early childhood curriculum.  Thus, parents who have already enrolled their child in a play-based preschool are expected to have acted rationally and to have perceived their choice as the most advantageous. In this respect, this study hopes to understand parents beliefs and attitudes towards a play-based early childhood curriculum.

Therefore, when investigating the final research question  What are parents beliefs and attitudes towards an early childhood play-based curriculum  I identified the following areas as the providers of resources in this research

The above theoretical framework represents the relationship of parents beliefs, attitudes, and perception of play-based curriculum to their understanding of the play-based curriculum and demonstrates how it influences their choices regarding preschool programs for their child.  The degree to which parents understand the curriculum of their children would also directly influence parental involvement in and support for the learning activities of their childs preschool.

Research Method

According to Bryman (2004), qualitative research provides a research strategy that usually emphasizes the words with which individuals interpret actions and the social world, and it may be an appropriate method to be employed in social research.  Since the present study intends to explore and understand the beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions of parents, the qualitative method is the most appropriate.

Qualitative methods have been gaining support and wider application in different fields within the social sciences, indicating the usefulness of the kind of data and knowledge that this method offers (Polit  Beck, 2004).  Qualitative methods rely on the participants experience of the variable under study, whether it is an event, a psychological process, or a social phenomenon.  The qualitative researcher investigates the issue or phenomenon with the assumption that the best source of information is the participant, and the best kinds of data are those having been expressed and clarified by the participant (Patton, 2002).  Creswell (2007) stated that the goal in qualitative research is to achieve understanding, which he described as a deep knowledge of some social setting or phenomenon (p.34).

The data gathered using the qualitative method are far richer and more robust and real in the sense that it came from the personal viewpoint, understanding, and experience of the participants (Denzin  Lincoln, 2005).  Quantitative methods are limited because the data are gathered and analyzed using a predetermined scale and a set of hypotheses, which may or may not be true to the context of the study (Polit  Beck, 2004).  Quantitative methods also rely on statistical analysis of the data, which takes out the human factor of the study values and standards for determining significance cannot aptly describe an experience such as job satisfaction (Johnson  Christensen, 2004).

Acknowledging multiple realities in qualitative case studies, as is now commonly done, involves discerning the various perspectives of the researcher, the caseparticipant, and others, which may or may not converge (Yin, 2003).  As an interpretive, inductive form of research, case studies explore the details and meanings of experience and do not usually attempt to test a priori hypotheses.  Instead, the researcher attempts to identify important patterns and themes in the data.  The richness of case studies is related to the amount of detail and contextualization that is possible when only one or a small number of focal cases and issues are analyzed (Baxter  Jack, 2008).  This is different from phenomenology, which is a research method designed for obtaining a description of an experience as it is lived in order to understand the meaning of that experience for those who have it (Denzin  Lincoln, 2005).  The case study method investigates a contemporary phenomenon over time to provide an in-depth description of essential dimensions and processes of the phenomenon (Yin, 2003).

Based on the goals of this study, the nature of qualitative method and the case study design are appropriate for this study. Case study research involves the study of an issue explored through one or more cases within a bounded system (i.e., a setting, a context).  The bounded system is investigated over-time through detailed, comprehensive data collection involving multiple sources of information (e.g., observations, interviews, audiovisual material, and documents and reports).  A case description is then provided along with case-based themes. In the present study, parents will be the cases, and their perceptions of play-based preschool curriculums will be the bounded system.

This study will use the narrative in-depth interview as a qualitative data collection method, which can elicit far richer information than a survey.  Further, interviews offer the researcher a means to clarify responses and validate participant responses. Cohen et al. (2000) posited that individual behaviors can only be understood by understanding individuals interpretations of the world around them.  Therefore, meaningful social action needs to be interpreted from the point of view of the actors or the people who are in that particular situation.  It can be said that parents who have already enrolled their child in a play-based preschool would naturally feel more strongly about it than parents who have not sent their child to a play-based preschool (Bryman, 2004).

Research Design

This qualitative case study will be conducted to help answer the question What are the parents beliefs and attitudes towards an early childhood play-based curriculum
Sub Questions
Additional questions to help answer the larger question include
What are perceptions of play
What are parents beliefs regarding developmentally appropriate practices
What are parents perceptions of early learning

This qualitative case study examines preschool parents beliefs and attitudes using a narrative inquiry data-collection strategy in order to showcase the experiences and perceptions of parents towards play-based curricula in early childhood programs.  Case study and narrative inquiry seek to understand the particular details in a historically and socially bounded context (Clandinin  Connelly, 2000).

Clandinin and Connellys (2000) thinking originated with Deweys concept of experience.  Dewey expanded the experience to be continuous and leading to personal and social (interaction), past, present, and future (continuity), combined with the notion of place (situation), which creates a metaphorical three-dimensional narrative inquiry space, with temporarily along one dimension, the personal and the social along a second dimension, and place along a third (Clandinin  Connelly, 2000, p.50).

Various boundaries must be considered when implementing narrative inquiry thinking.  Deweys two criteria of experience continuity and interaction provide a theoretical frame for identifying tension at the boundaries.  Tensions pertaining to continuity that were brought up by the experience describe are temporarily, people, action, and certainty  (Clandinin  Connelly 2000 p. 21).  This temporality addresses how the participants look at a specific event in time, which has a past, present, and future implication.  The second tension to consider is the participants progression of change.  Next, the participants actions must be analyzed using narrative interpretation before any meaning can be present.  However, the concept of certainty concerning the interpretation of the participants actions should be tentatively questioned with further analysis needed and with no absolute truth guaranteed. Another key factor to consider is the context, in relation to events, location, and interaction with other people.  All of these boundaries interconnect, and narrative inquiry looks to each for answers to explain the participants story (Clandinin  Connelly, 2000).

Clandinin and Connellys (2000) three-dimensional space questions work towards defining the final research question how do parents understand a play-based early childhood curriculum.

DimensionQuestionExplanation of IntentBackwardHow do parents personal experiences in school contribute to their current beliefs about how children learnTo understand how parents past experiences have formed their perceptions of how children learn and develop.  This question provides a space to explore past boundaries, as suggested by Clandinin and Connelly (2000).  It will provide participants an opportunity to explore their own experiences as it increases their understanding of how children learn.ForwardWhat are parents future goals for their childrenTo determine how parents future educational goals for their children will influence the type of early childhood program in which their young children participate. InwardIn what ways do parents think about the implications of early learningTo gain an understanding of how parents perceive early learning.  In what ways do they understand that infants and young children learn and how they learn OutwardWhat are the outside factors that influence how parents understand how children learnTo assist me in understanding how parents use outside information in their decision-making process.  Do current policies, such as standards and standardized testing, effect their decision  Do readings or research play into their decision

Choosing case study and narrative inquiry allows for the researcher to experience a small bounded setting, incorporating how parents view the benefits of play.  This methodology allows for social and political phenomena to appear.  When people are willing to share their unique stories, feelings, and experiences, the case study approach provides first-hand data.

The researcher plans to report personal experiences chronologically or thematically in a particular setting to offer an analysis or to make sense of what the participants have expressed (Yin, 1994).  The process of the researcher involves restorying an individuals story in a logical, meaningful, and organized way.  First, transcriptions of the interviews conducted must occur.  Next, it is essential to analyze the data to identify key elements and to systematically code the transcriptions to uncover the themes and complexities of each story.  Restorying the data into logical sequences adds depth to the insight and understanding of the persons experiences, allowing others to see, hear, and understand a persons narrative.

The purpose for using the narrative case study is that it allows the researcher to witness and report a descriptive setting in order to share experiences.  Personal and social growth can be apparent when asking for a participant to consider a situation in a past, present, and future context.  Having initial and post-interviews allows a researcher to record any changes in view point, interpretations, confusion, or evaluation in a specific situation (Yin, 1994).  Dewey (1938) spoke of continuity and interaction of experiences and the importance of focusing more on the individual versus the collective whole.  He promoted the consideration of actual life-experiences and asking for insightful, meaningful lessons.

Nevertheless, case study and narrative inquiry have downfalls as well.  Case studies are criticized for being soft research and not possessing generalizability (Yin, 1994) however, there are always ways to challenge that assumption.  For instance, case studies examine individual people who possess differences and unique characteristics therefore, generalization most likely does not occur and is not important.  The audience and readers should realize that people and environments are different therefore, generalizability is not sought.  Rather, the benefit of using narrative inquiry is to prove the benefits of showcasing individuals experiences.  An additional criticism of case study methodologies is that the researcher can become close to the participants, which can be detrimental to the research if not handled properly (Clandinin  Connelly, 2000).  Some also argue that this closeness is a methodological strength, because the same closeness allows the researcher to acquire more in-depth information, and it may make it easier for the participant to share personal experiences.  A researcher must be able to stay objective, even when the two parties become familiar with one another.  Also, there is always the risk to the participant when the stories, interviews, and writings must be analyzed by the researcher (Yin, 1994) unintentional memory and perception can vary from time-to-time, setting-to-setting, and person-to-person.  Exaggerations and understatements must be watched for and taken into consideration (Clandinin  Connelly, 2000).

The researcher will keep these considerations in mind before beginning this case study however, I feel strongly that case study is the best way to acquire personal insight into how the parents of young children perceive play.  Both oral and written data collection will be used and analyzed from a narrative inquiry model.  Asking any individual to recall a situation can be short of the absolute truth, since perception, and memory can be faulty (Clandinin  Connelly, 2000).  Consequently, this limitation of the data will be considered when interpreting the findings.

I resorted to qualitative research, oriented towards identifying and describing human experiences in various subjects, with the help of interviews.  In this process, it is important to keep in mind the possibility of becoming influenced by the participants environment, and interpretation of the data could be subject to the biases and personal opinions of the researcher (Myers, 2002).  Frequently, when conducting qualitative research, researchers must adapt to the participants environment to elicit the best from them.  Accordingly, I will conduct interviews in natural settings, including the Goddard School premises and in common public places. Interpretation will identify possible biases in the views of some of the participants and duly discard them.  Further, I will analyze recurring phrases, patterns, or statements from the participants in order to develop a theoretical basis to reach my conclusion.

Case Study

This study adopts the case study design with the view that individual cases provide more in-depth information. Case studies focus on the individual and hisher experiences and immediate reality, which is needed to derive meaning and understanding of the issue or concept under examination.  Moreover, it provides real examples from real people who are unencumbered by the use of predetermined measures or surveys, and whose responses will only result in numbers and statistics (Bogdan  Biklen, 2007).  In this study, individuals will be interviewed and asked to share their stories based on open-ended questions that correspond to the over-arching research questions.  In doing so, the individuals experiences and beliefs will be discussed in order to arrive at a better understanding of the research topic, which regards parental perceptions and understanding of a play-based curriculum.  It is expected that other factors such as race, religion, and socioeconomic status would influence the experiences and thoughts of parents.  Thus, the parents selected for the study will come from different backgrounds.

The case study design has been criticized for its narrow nature it focuses only on a small number of cases.  Therefore, generalizations are difficult to derive and apply since the results are often true only for the cases that the study has used.  However, in this research, the objective is to understand parents own concept of a play-based curriculum and does not intend to establish any theory or disprove any hypothesis but, rather, to explore and gain new understanding of a given phenomena.

While case study is defined as an empirical inquiry between real-life context and contemporary phenomenon, especially when the relationship between the two is ambiguous (Yin, 2003), it will play a pivotal role in this research by highlighting the detailed analysis of the events, human condition, or social relationships.

However, the use of case study for this research aligns more with Creswells (2002) view that the case study serves as the gateway of an inquiry that provide profound understanding of the system where a problem or issue is situated.  The system eventually will become the case, because within the system the researcher chooses an event, activity, or any form of contemporary phenomenon that does not have clear boundaries within the real-life context, making it the subject of the case.

Though, some researchers offer words of caution regarding the difficulty associated with case study method (Stake, 2005), the sense of gravity generated by the case study used in this research project rose above all dilemmas and formed the core of this investigation.

Research Setting

The study will be conducted in a local private preschoolin Northeast Ohio that has long used the play-based curriculum and adheres to the principles and requirements of a quality play-based preschool. I chose The Goddard School as my primary location for interviews for more than one reason. Firstly, this is the school where the participants children are currently enrolled secondly, Goddards utilizes a play-based curriculum and, finally, the school has strong parental involvement.

The curriculum theory at the Goddard School is based on the works of Jean Piaget.  Piagets theory is premised on the idea that the developing child builds cognitive structures for understanding and responding to experiences within hisher environment. Like Piaget, Goddard believes that play behavior is a vehicle of cognitive stimulation.  Childrens development takes place in a specific sequence, regardless of a childs race, intelligence, or culture.  The assumption made is that we can enhance or delay development, but we cannot change its basic order.  Children learn to be comfortable in the world around them.  This is well known.

Therefore, the parents lack of support for the play-based curriculum is often puzzling.

Sample

The respondents of this study will be parents who have enrolled their child in a Goddard School, as the goal of the study is to explore parents perceptions of a play-based curriculum.  Thirty parents will be invited to participate in the research study through an invitation letter, and the parents that will reply and give consent will be contacted for personal interviews.

When it comes to selecting the parents that will participate in the study, the following points will be noted during the interview process

The degree of the parents willingness to participate in the study.

The educational background of the parents --- what are their educational attainments  Are they from a conservative background  Or are they progrssive  How many years did they spend in school
The parents objective behind their childs enrollment at the Goddard school.  Do they believe in the principles of the institution  Or are they just enrolling their child at the school out of convenience  Do members of the parents immediate community have children enrolled at the Goddard school
The parents aspirations for their child.  Do they have aspirations as to the outcomes of their child  What are their views when it comes to shaping their childs future
The parents expectations from the school.  Upon enrolling their child at a Goddard school, what were they expecting

These preliminary questions are pre-emptive of the questions that will be found in the interview.  The reason why the parents have to be interviewed according to this platform is for the purpose of ensuring a variation of perceptions in the case study.  The aim of these questions is to measure the depth of contribution that the parents will share when it comes to their views on the subject.  The interviews of the study itself will be more focused and a chance to go more in-depth in explaining their perspectives.  This also goes to show that the selection will not be random, and this applies for a qualitative study.

From the number of respondents from the invitation, and the number of parents that are going to go through the preliminary interview, the final number of participants will be narrowed down to five which is substantial to create a focus group that will be a platform for this case study.  It should be noted that case study research and narrative interviews do not need to have a large sample size, since the focus is on gaining an in-depth understanding of the parents perceptions. Race, gender, socio-economic status, and religion will not be controlled for in this study, but will be noted to provide demographic information about the respondents.

Data Collection

Following the qualitative method, I will conduct one-on-one interviews with the parent participants and will use a predetermined interview protocol in which questions, based on the research questions, will be asked of the parents.  The questions will be open-ended, and the participants will be asked to share their responses and clarifications to correct any misperceptions. If parents have difficulty sharing their thoughts and experiences, additional questions will be asked to assist participants in elaborating on their answers to the previous questions.  The interviews will not be timed, and the participant can freely share all that they want with minimal interruption from the interviewer.  The interview will be recorded by audio tape, but permission from the parents will be sought before the start of the interview.  If parents decline the taping of the interview, note taking will be used, but will be done discreetly. Interviews can be used to understand an individuals perspective (Fontana  Frey, 1994).  They allow investigation and prompting of matters which cannot be observed (Wellington, 2000). Interviews also allow reflection on the complexity of social behavior and attempt to explain the causes (Silverman, 2001).

Following the suggestions of Merriam (1988), I will use interviews as data collection techniques in order to understand the cases in their totality.  I will also strive to create a holistic depiction of each case and, accordingly, utilize interviews, participant observation, and direct observation to augment my research.  To maximize the usefulness of the data, I will follow standard protocols associated with each of these methods.

For example, I will be mindful that an interview is a focused face-to-face meeting between two parties, namely, the interviewer and the interviewee (Treece  Treece Jr., 1977), and the difference between an interview and a simple list of open-ended questions is that the former may be considered as an ordinary dialogue between two people.

I will not adhere to a rigid set of questions, but, rather, use a broad-based guideline to gather information on issues relevant to my research.  Through this process, even dialogue can supply a wealth of information if the discussion can be extended to several topics that are related to the main focus of the study.  I will utilize a semi-structured interview approach, in which the researcher asks additional questions, as necessary, for more extensive coverage of the topic.  This method enables the researcher to gather more in-depth information (Treece  Treece Jr., 1977).

Timeline

This research study can be conducted in one year, wherein the refinement of the proposal and methods will be conducted from February 2010 to May 2010 to allow for the summer break of schools.  By the month of October, schools will be settling into a new school year and preschool children will then begin school.  During this month, I will communicate and work with the schools teachers and administrators regarding the details of the research plan the interview protocol must be finished and refined at the end of the month. By October, I will start with the recruitment of participants and the setting up of interviews. I plan to interview as many as 10 parents conducting two interviews a month will suffice, depending on the schedules and availability of the parents.  At the end of the interviews, by December, I plan to start the analysis of the data and to make the necessary interpretation of the results.  January to May will be devoted to the writing of the results, discussion, and recommendation part of the study, as well as the proofreading and editing of the paper.

Data Analysis

The gathered data will be analyzed using the qualitative method, which is an inductive approach.  This approach starts with a rough definition of research questions, data collection, coding, saturating categories, and exploring relationships between categories (Bryman, 2004).  The sub-processes involved in this data analysis method are data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing (Huberman  Miles, 1998).  After collection, the data has to be reduced to its component parts in order to make complicated things understandable (Bernard 1988 cited in Huberman  Miles, 1998). In this stage, data are coded and summarized into themes (Wellington, 2000).  Data display allows the researcher to conceptualize the material as organized and assembled data.  The third process is conclusion drawing which involves interpreting and giving meaning to data (Wellington, 2000).  These processes will provide a useful starting point for data analysis in this investigation, but Wellington (2000) argues that analyzing qualitative data is messier and more complicated than these three processes would suggest.  He posits that data analysis has to involve immersion in the data, reflecting upon it, taking it apart, synthesizing it, relating and locating the data, and presenting the data.  These strategies will be used in data analysis of this research.

All the interviews will be recorded by MP3 recorder and transcribed in detail.  In order to manage such a large amount of qualitative data, every transcription from two phases of interviews will be printed.  Each transcription will be read and re-read, carefully, to understand a sense of the holism of the interview before finding the appropriate codes from the data.  Identifying appropriate codes and categorizing the data into themes are important steps in the data analysis. Kerlinger (1970) defines coding as the translation of question responses and respondent information to specific categories for the purpose of analysis (Cited in Cohen et al., 2000 283). After coding, the researcher has to examine and compare the data within the categories and compare the data across categories in order to build an integrated explanation (Rubin  Rubin, 1995).  The processes of analysis for this study will be transcribing interviews, reading transcription, analyzing data and finding codes, categorizing and translating data, determining themes, examining and comparing the data, and building a logical chain of findings.  The discussion of the research findings will be based on the individual narratives of the respondents, wherein the objective is to provide as many divergent and convergent ideas on a specified issue or context.

Trustworthiness and Validity

Validity can be defined as the correctness or credibility of a description conclusion, explanation, interpretation (Maxwell, 2005).  Maxwell (2005) also states that validity does not only mean to discuss terms, like triangulation and member checking, but, also, how to rule out specific plausible alternatives and threats to your interpretation and explanation. These areas include researcher bias and reactivity.  Furthermore, validity tests can be performed by the researcher to include intensive, long-term involvement, rich data, respondent validation, intervention, discrepant evidence and negative cases, triangulation, quasi-statistics, and comparison (Maxwell, 2005).  The researcher has considered the following areas of concern.

Limitations

The limitations of the study include the difficulty of deriving generalizations from the research findings, because, with this particular case study design, findings will only be true for the given research setting and participant.  Also, the possible effects of demographic factors, such as race, religion, and socioeconomic status, might affect the responses of the participants when those variables are not taken into consideration.

Moreover, responses have to be taken at face value, as true and reflective of the experiences and thoughts of the participants.

Summary of Chapter 3

This chapter presented the theoretical framework in which the study will be conducted the research method and design is also presented and discussed in detail to justify the use of such methods and design.  The chapter also provided the description of the research setting, the research sample, the data gathering procedure, data analysis, the timeline, and validity and reliability concerns, as well as the anticipated limitations of the study.

Narrative In-depth Interview Protocol

Backward
Did you go to preschool when you were your childs age
What kind of preschool did you attend
What was your most memorable experience in your own preschool  Why
Do you think you would want to have your child experience the same preschool you did Why
Do you think your preschool helped you prepare for formal schooling  Why

Forward
To what school do you plan to send your child for kindergarten  Why
What do you think are the most important skills that your child should learn as heshe grows up  Why
What do you expect in terms of your childs academic performance in the future  Why
What is your dream for your child  Why
Will you be supportive of hisher interests in the future

Inward
Why have you enrolled your child in this school
What are your thoughts about preschool education
Do you feel that this preschool is the best school for your child  Why
Do you believe in the idea that young children learn through play Why
Do you think there are other ways of learning that your child can benefit from  Please elaborate.

Outward
What factors influenced your decision to enroll your child in this school
Among the factors you mentioned, which is the most influential  Why
Are you aware of the state of the nations educational policies on standardized testing How do you feel about this
Have you read or researched about preschools before you decided on sending your child to preschool  What
Do you think preschool is important as preparation for kindergarten  Why  Where did you get your information