Parental Beliefs and Attitudes Towards an Early Childhood Play-based Curriculum
Parents enrolling their children in an early childhood education program that implementsuses a play-based curriculum may have done so only because the school has met their expectationsother criteria in some way, and not because they are aware of their awareness of the benefits of the play-basedis type of program. Nevertheless, if When parents would only understand and appreciate the curriculum, they will become more involved and have more realistic expectations of their childs learning opportunities.
This study assesses the beliefs and attitudes of five parents regarding the play-based curriculum. Using qualitative methods, itthis study will aims to gatherask information in narrative form five on parents to share their beliefs and attitudes regarding the subject in question in narrative form. The analysis of the data will be based on the narrative responses of the parents, and focusing on commonalities, differences, and emergent themes.
Chapter 1 Introduction
I just want my child to have fun is a comment I hear regularly from parents touring my preschool. But the magic of fun somehow disappears as children reach the ages of three and or four, and when theyare start to prepareing to enter for the real school. Standards, standardized tests, honorssuccess in school, grades etc., seem tosoon become parents greatest concerns. Somewhere along the line, the fun comment is replaced with Aall they do here is play Hhow is this going to help Johnny in real school How is he going to fare on the kindergarten readiness test if you never provide worksheets and assign homework
As a preschool ownereducator, I remember so vividly the day I decided to leave an incredible 13- year career as a public school teacher in one of Ohios wealthiest school districts to own and run my own preschool. This was not an easy decision, because I love teaching leaving the classroom was one of the hardest professional decisions I have ever made. However, the standards and standardized testing that were dictating our curriculum practices were in complete conflict with my beliefs. Fortunately, I had options and decided to stay with teaching by going to younger ages, who at the time, seemed exempt from the overt pressure of standardized testing. I envisioned a facility that embraced play as the primary learning philosophy one that incorporated valued child interests and focus groups, one that integrated multicultural facets.
I could not be more pleased with my decision to walk away from an amazing retirement, decent salary, and summers off to be with my own children to offer mythese ideals to other young learners. Little did I realize that the same nightmares that plagued me previously would continue to haunt me, even at this leveltime. Although research on play and cognitive development provide a lot of support for the play-based curriculum for our young children, the recent state and national emphasis on proficiency test performance has reinforced the concept of minimal play time, even in the primary settings. It appears that even the small segments of play time and choice time are being replaced with academic readiness practices.
The constant struggle with for accountability, as well as top-down standards and coercive pressure to raise scores on an endless series of standardized test- (Kohn, 2004, p.572), in addition to the battle of improving education, all seem to be dictating current educational trends. Even if a program embraces the importance of play, the outer forces that continue to push-downpress for academics is constantly threatening the foundation from which our young children build their educational future. We strip them of their best innate confidence in directing their own learning, hurry them along, and often wear them out. (Almon, year, p.20). This push for a more academic foundation in the early years may find us losing sight of the real purpose of learning. If we continue down this path of creating a test-prep curriculum in which our emphasis is on how the child scores on a reading test, rather than on allowinghaving children to read for pleasure and for information after leaving school, we may might generate quite the opposite effect and negatively impacting cognitive development.
Nevertheless, the global challenge that the Information Age has imposed on us has likewise prompted education officials to redefine school achievement. The governments move to establish educational standards through the NCLB was based on the decline of education standards since the start of the 70s (Peterson, 2003). At present, most schools implement standard-based curricula, formal evaluation methods, and numerical grading system in response to the call for a wider educational transformation. Suffice to mention, the U.S. ranks only 19th in the Literacy Index established by the UNESCO (2007). Such data support the current trend in education, and imply the need of preschool educators to respond accordingly. In this consideration, it is worthwhile to weigh the significance of play-based curriculum as it contradicts with what the Higher Education promotes, the standard-based curriculum. With the help of parents who themselves have witnessed the relevance of play-based curriculum to the current education system and to the broader aspects of their childrens lives, the study shall gain novel findings on whether play-based curriculum should be continued and up to what extent it should be implemented in the preschool level.
Since parents are the ones who decide where to enroll their children, it would be best to learn how they feel towards play-based curriculum. To secure a well-informed research and unbiased finding, the study will secure information both from present parents (PRP) whose children are currently enrolled in play-based curriculum, and from past parents (PSP) or those whose children have graduated from schools offering play-based curriculum.
The Research Setting
My preschool, (name of school) is situated in a Northeastern Ohio suburb. The demographics surrounding my school consist of upper middle class, educated, two-parent households. In the recent past, we were operating at 99248 Caucasians, but have noticed a cultural trend changing our schools population we now house six native Asian families, and eight native Indian families, three African -American families, and two biracial families. This trend, I believe, is due to a new 30-acre hospital facility opening across the street.
As I tour families, I am always assured that parents want the best for their children. The decision to leave a young child to a non-family member is a difficult, but common one, and it is what brought me to this point in my life a 43 year-old mother of two daughters, ages 10 and 13, pursuing a PhD in Curriculum and Instruction with an early childhood focus.
A very attractive, well-dressed woman in her mid-thirties, entered my school foyer holding an expensive handbag, and armed with a list of questions, began her quest for the perfect childcare provider. This well-spoken mom has a two-year-old son and an infant daughter. She, an attorney and her husband, a resident doctor, just moved to our communityhere from Washington, DC. My tour involves a short introduction to meof myself and my background, as well as the schools. I always include a short description of our philosophy, which includes play, a tour of the facility, an introduction to all teachers, and, finally, a meeting in my office where we address any all questions in their list. Such a list typically includes safety and security, ratios, sick policy, discipline policy, sanitation procedures, lunch and snack, tuition, etc. In this instance, curriculum was never mentioned, even after I spoke of our play-based philosophy, our Flex Learning Program, etc. Such things did not seem important to this mom. She asked about teacher turnover, how many infants were currently enrolled, how many teachers were in the classroom, and if her baby would be rocked to sleep. She asked if her young toddler would visit the gym, which is located in the older building if he would go outside every day and if he could participate in karate and soccer. Literature supporting everything discussed during the tour, including curriculum issues, was handed to her, as well as a business card with the web address for any additional information.
This is very much a typical tour. The motherMom called later to announce that her decision was complete and her children would be starting the next Monday. That was two years ago. Her children still attend my school full time, now ages three and five. Both kids are in the West facility that houses older children older Preschool, Pre K, Jr-K, K, and after school classroomsprogram. Her children are thriving academically and socially. Yet, two years later, her concern now shiftsed to academic readiness. She made an appointment with me to review the Ohio Pre K standards which she received from her neighbor. Our hour-and-half hour meeting consisted of examples of just how these standards are being implemented, met, and mastered without the use of paperpencil, drill, skill worksheets, and paper assessments. Although our philosophy has not changed, nor has her desire for her children to have fun, the fear of success in school has crept into this moms thinking. Walking through her sons and daughters classrooms daily and observing kids buildingworking with blocks, doingin dramatic play, using sand and water, and working at art stations, all without an adult teacher,leader reassures her that the kids are indeed having fun, but what are they learning How can she be sure they will be prepared for school
This has me posing several opposing questions. On one hand, I wonder, Why is there a sudden shift in parents attitude toward my schools program What is our responsibility as early childhood professionals Is it our responsibility as professionals to ensure that we continue to implement play- based learning in our early childhood programs What evidence can Ido we offer parents that play-based curriculum is an appropriate curriculum for primary school readiness How do Iwe advocate for preschoolers as a time in life to cherish play as a basis for wholistic development and learning How do we do this as advocates of this cause by sharing our knowledge with parents, colleagues, and other professionals
On the other hand, it also moves me to ask, Is play-based curriculum still relevant at this time Is there a need to revise my curriculum to fit more into the standardized education that most primary schools have set
It is imperative that we pass along documented research such as Smilanskys findings (1990, p.35) that states a childs ability to engage in dramatic and sociodramatic play was found to be directly linked to a wealth of skills, all of which are essential for academic success. If we are responsible for preparing children to grow up and become reliable citizens, then we should focus on playing like a citizen making choices, negotiating choices, and sharing in decision making, which are all common practices in a play-based early childhood environment. Children who enjoy learning will inevitably believe in themselves, feel competent, take risks, work towards goals, and find pleasure in the process, as well as the product these are all qualities equating to being a productive member of society.
While this study cannot address all of these large questions, it does My desire is to address these questions in order to implement changes in my program as necessary. As a strong advocate of play for small children, I wish that parents would understand my advocacy and realize its value in the learning and development of their children. However, such is not easy and would be biased. Therefore, in my study, I would begin to inquire from with a group of five parents, deeply, on their beliefs. and attitude about play-based curriculum in the hope of finding out what changes if any, I should incorporate into my curriculum to better respond to the needs of todays children.
Providing an environment that embraces childrens natural sense of curiosity, while promoting the basic foundation of knowledge, is obviously the key to developing good learners (citations). I believe, we, as educators, must resist policies that mandate the reduction of time for play in preschool and primary grades and work to increase funding for research on play relationships in early childhood. The overwhelming amounts of research supporting the connection between play and cognitive growth makes the value of a play-based early childhood curriculum apparent. This approach to learning contributes to the development of a diverse array of higher mental functions.
Children are growing up in a rapidly changing world, characterized by dramatic demands for children higher and tougher learning standards for all populations of students, accompanied by a narrow view of what constitutes effective learning processes.. Children have less time and opportunity to play than ever before (Citations). Everyone agrees that the primary goal of education is student learning, and that all educators, families, and policymakers bear the responsibility for making learning accessible to all children. Decades of research have documented that play has a crucial role in the optimal growth, learning, and development of children from infancy through adolescence. Yet, this need is being challenged, and, so, childrens right to play must be defended by all adults, especially educators and parents. The time has come to advocate strongly in support of play for all children. We must continue the fight for play.
My desire to investigate how these five parents perceive and understand play-based pre school curriculum is my first step in the fight for play. If I can understand these parents perception and understanding of the learning-through-play approach by hearing their stories and their voices, I can use this information to help assure other parents along the way that play is learning.
About Early Childhood Education Programs
Early childhood education programs have provided foundational learning experiences to very young children in preparation for formal schooling. Early childhood education programs strive to provide children with the basic skills in literacy and numeracy, which are crucial for all levels of education, while, at the same time, providing the social, emotional, and cultural interaction that children need for maturity and social development. There is a wide variation in child care programs in the United States ranging from basic care-based, and sometimes simply custodial-based, care to nationally accredited early childhood programs such as those promoted by the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). There are aA number of early childhood education models are in place Montessori, Reggio-Emilia, Waldorf, Play-Based, and Academics-Based, each having a different philosophy and educational objective, but all striving to contribute to the readiness of children for formal instruction (Singer, Singer, Plaskon, Schweder, 2003).
Theoretical Frameworks
Earlier theories on child development do not directly specify play as an essential aspect of cognitive development yet constructivist theories recognize it as an important factor affecting childrens interest and social development. In addition, neuroscience contributes to the view that physical and age-related play enhances brain, physical, and overall development (Frost 1998).
Constructivism posits that children develop their own concepts of things based on prior knowledge and experience. Guided by people, prior knowledge or experience, they perceive, analyze, and eventually make up their own ideas regarding the world. Therefore, prior skills used at play may be applied relevantly to other situations, such as problem solving, analysis, or decision-making. This makes play an important part of childrens life, as it serves as the introduction to higher skills and more difficult challenges of life.
In particular, Lev Vygotsky (cited in Palmer, 2004), a well-known constructivist supports the importance of play in the childs development. In his last lecture, Play and the Psychological Development of the Child, Vygotsky emphasized the importance of play during the childs early years. According to him, play is part of a childs Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). ZPD is the difference between what a child can do and what she cannot. During play, the child behaves beyond his age, and discovers new ways of doing things such as different shapes and heights of blocks. As the child does this, she explores the depths of ZPD, which consequences to a better learning ability.
In the same way, neuroscience provides support for childs play. Frost (1998) documents that brain development is further improved as children engage in age-appropriate play. Conversely, he illustrates that deprivation of play could result in aberrant behavior (8). In this view, this study will rely heavily on neuroscience or brain theories to support the effect that play has on childrens development.
Several relevant theoretical frameworks have been designed as a means to establish the working forces behind the effectiveness of a childs learning development. The social constructivist theory claims that individuals perceptions of the reality around them shape their thoughts and behavior (Berger Luckman, 1966) and that the construction of meaning is a process forged in the crucible of everyday interactionmeanings are negotiated, exchanged, and modified through everyday interactions with others (Rosenholtz, 1989, p. 3). It also says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiencing and reflecting upon those experiences.
One of these theories is Vgotskys social constructivist theory which basically refers to the significant role of the adult in terms of the childs success in learning and development. The idea is that the Zone of Proximal Development or ZPD, Vgotskys core theory, conveys how children are able to learn based on their situated learning and communities of education. How the adults determine the childs learning strategies eventually dictates the style of teaching that the child is exposed to. Parents attitudes and beliefs towards certain learning models for their children critically influence the childs overall development.
This study will use the theoretical framework of social constructivism, that is , the theoretical lens is that when we encounter something new, we have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experiences, perhaps, changing what we believe or modifiying the former information as not as important, partial, or irrelevant. As active creators of our own knowledge. I will ask questions, as well as explore and assess the information I gather from the study, which will identify the main perceptions surrounding a play-based early childhood curriculum. Thus, parents who have already enrolled their child in a play-based preschool are expected to have acted rationally and to have perceived their choice as the most advantageous. In this respect, this study hopes to understand parents beliefs and attitudes towards a play-based early childhood curriculum, using this knowledge to mitigate the concerns of parents new to the program.
Through the constructivist lens, this framework can be approached in two ways the social constructivist theory, as a determinant in the parents attitudes and beliefs towards education models for their children the social constructivist theory, as a platform that can support play-based curriculum. Vgotsky theory clearly shows how a child learns, based on his or her learning evolution the childs current achievements in learning should continue to transition, becoming ever more substantial. Play, in this respect, may discontinue to be perceived as merely an extra, if children who have been engaged in play-based learning are seen to have grasped important and serious intellectual concepts not ordinarily perceived as a byproduct of play. Although there are the emerging studies that support the importance of play, a positive parent response to this teaching strategy has yet to be established how play-based learning measures up to their perceptions of teaching and learning and to their expectations in terms of their childs performance.
This study seeks to understand the perception and attitudes of five parents toward their childs play-based preschool curriculum. In doing so, I hope to contribute to filling the gap in the literature on the subject of parental beliefs and attitudes towards a play-based curriculum. The goal is to create a more receptive and supportive parental attitude toward the play-based curriculum, thus increasing parental involvement, which, consequently, creates a more effective learning environment.
Main Research Questions
Parents want the best for their children (Ogbu, yearOthers) choosing a preschool is no exception. Children have different needs and the preschool program should be able to address those needs. Parents often choose preschools that are child-friendly that is, they have passed safety standards, provide enough learning materials, employ qualified and caring teachers, and maintain an attractive facility. Rarely do parents ask about the schools curriculum or its academic offerings. In my experience, parents expect preschools to teach children basics like shapes, colors, alphabet, numbers, and reading. Most preschools integrate these basic skills into their learning programs, but each preschool differs in how the said skills are presented to the children for teaching purposes.
It is important for all parents to have a thorough understanding of the curriculum that their child will be experiencing, whether in preschool or in any other educational setting. Preschools enjoy a certain amount of flexibility in how they teach young children. Different teaching models are available, and some schools integrate two models (i.e, Montessori and Reggio Emilia). When parents know and understand the curriculum of their childs preschool, they are more likely to become involved in the schools activities. They then know how to reinforce their childs learning at home, and tend to collaborate more with teachers.
This study will assess five parents beliefs and attitudesperception and understanding of towards a play-based curriculum in a local preschools in (statecity). The parents (either mother or father in one family) should have a child or children who are enrolled or were enrolled in a school that implements play-based curriculumwhere their child is currently enrolled. Parents perception would help identify the relevance of play based curriculum, whether it has helped facilitate their childrens readiness and ability to learn and develop skills needed for the real school or for everyday living. In addition, parents views may provide reason for preschools to continue of discontinue implementation of play-based curriculum. Moreover, their responses will serve as valuable insights to educators in general, including those who are not implementing play.
Parents want the best for their children (Ogbu, year Others) choosing a preschool is no exception. Children have different needs and the preschool program should be able to address those needs. Parents often choose preschools that are child-friendly that is, they have passed safety standards, provide enough learning materials, employ qualified and caring teachers, and maintain an attractive facility. Rarely do parents ask about the schools curriculum or its academic offerings. In my experience, parents expect preschools to teach children basics like shapes, colors, alphabet, numbers, and reading. Most preschools integrate these basic skills into their learning programs, but each preschool differs in how the said skills are presented to the children for teaching purposes.
It is important for all parents to have a thorough understanding of the curriculum that their child will be experiencing, whether in preschool or in any other educational setting. Preschools enjoy a certain amount of flexibility in how they teach young children. Different teaching models are available, and some schools integrate two models. When parents know and understand the curriculum of their childs preschool, they are more likely to become involved in the schools activities. They then know how to reinforce their childs learning at home, and there is more collaboration between parents and teachers.
Considering its focus, Pplay-based curricula may beare largely misperceived as not providing enough attention to skills and learning. Also, the current standard-based education being implemented, may consider play unimportant, thus curtail time for it or totally disregard it. Such would be deterrent to children whose basic needs include play and fun. In this view, the questions that I would like to expound on include What are parents beliefs and attitudes towards play-based curriculum What factors led to the development of these beliefs and attitudes How dodid play-based curriculum affect their childrens learning and development , since the focus is on play . They may be misjudged in terms of their effectiveness in helping children to experience and learn. If better informed, many parents, who may have this misperception, might develop a more positive attitude towards the play-based curriculum, enabling them to make better curriculum choices for their children. and How do parents beliefs and attitudes regarding play impact the implementation of play-based curriculum and standard-based curriculumformal instruction
The questions I will seek to answer are the following Currently, what are these five parental understandings of the play-based curriculum of their childrens preschools What are the parental beliefs about the effectiveness and benefits of a play-based curriculum for their children What positive and negative perceptions do parents have about a play-based curriculum What effects do these positive and negative perceptions have on parental involvement in their childrens learning
This research will enable me to find answers to the questions I have proposed and to gain a better understanding of parental attitudes towards play-based curricula. By limiting my study to five parents it will allow me to thoroughly and deeply understand their perceptions regarding their children.
Purpose of the Study
My quest to understand the perceptions and attitudes of five parents towards a play-based curriculum has multiple purposes. First, is tTo provide readers and the early childhood education sector with information concerning parental beliefs and attitudes towards a play-based curriculum second, to learn how, according to parents views has what parents expect from a play-based curriculum affected their childrens learning and development and third, and to discern whether they believe it serves as an effective tool for early childhood education. The study will also shed light to a recurrent question among us, promoters of play-based curriculum, whether we are on the right track in our desire to promote play in instructionMoreover, I plan to share this information with other play-based school administrators and teachers, demonstrating to them how they can better describe their curricula to parents. On the part of the parents, this study will also serve as a venue for expressing their views regarding play-based instructionThe results of this study may also be utilized to improve parent-teacher relationships and to reinforce learning-at-home curricula Such would consequently make them feel the importance of their involvement as parents in their childrens education.
Statement of the Problem
Early childhood researchers have reported that young children learn best through activities that support the development of the whole child. However, Because of national concern with accountability, competition, testing and back-to-basics, puts an over-emphasis has been placed on academics and single-subject teaching (Elkind, 2007 Ornstein, 2002 Perrone, 2000). In response to these concerns, early childhood programs may focus the curriculum on the teaching of academic skills (Morrison, 2004). These factors have led to narrowly-defined curricula, which deny young children valuable life experiences found in play. Although a growing concern on math and language ability in the higher year levels has prompted the implementation of standard-based curriculum, it is not enough to impose such kind of system in the preschool level. In the first place, children are a lot different from adults in their ways to learn. Unlike adults, children, especially small ones, need play (citation) they need to be interested in what they do in order to continue with it. Therefore, the need for play in the preschool should not be disregarded. Nevertheless, the significance of play in instruction should be supported by research and by parents belief in the curriculum. Parents who want their child to be prepared academically may have concerns regarding preschools that adopt the play-based curriculum. Therefore, a study of the parents perceptions of a play-based early childhood curriculum may provide information useful to teachers and administrators when planning strategies for implementing a successful preschool programeducation.
Rationale
With the demand for effectiveness, test achievement scores, and accountability, manyost preschool programs have adopted and reinforced the formal instruction, academic-skills approach and have used play as a recreational period rather than a learning medium. In an Oregon state-wide survey sent to all kindergarten teachers and all principals with first-grade teachers, Hitz and Wright (1998) found that sixty-four percent of kindergarten teachers, sixty-one percent of principals, and seventy-two percent of first-grade teachers reported that formal academic instruction wais more prevalent in kindergarten than it was 10 to 20 years ago. In this scenario, cCreative expression may be considered not as important as cognitive development., and creativity Creativity may be viewed as irrelevantnot contributing to the development of thinking and problem solving.
ConverselyConsequently, it is possible that teachers and administrators have adopted can it be that academic instructions and other formal practices have been adopted, even though most of them practitioners considered suchthem developmentally inappropriate. This last scenario implies the loss or lack of academic freedom among educators, thus contradicting democratic principles.
Early childhood educators have shown concern with the type of instruction used in their education programs. Practices used in pre-kindergarten and kindergarten classes reflected an environmentalist-behaviorist view, even though teachers reported having other views. From a study of teacher practice, Hatch and Freeman (1988) found that two-thirds of early childhood teachers were implementing programs that are in conflict with their philosophies concerning childrens learning. Early childhood experts have long asserted that programs for young children should provide for the development of social, emotional, physical, cognitive, and creative skills, but the abovementioned findings do not reflect this anymore. In short, there isappears to be a gap between researchers recommendations and teachers practices (Bredekamp, 1997 Logue, Eheart, Leavitt, 1996).
Parents are the deciding authority when it comes to the type of education that their children should receive. Their perceptions and, latertherefore, their decisions are typically influenced by their own beliefs, experiences, and attitudes. As a consequencedditionally, their views of parents who are not involved withaffect the implementation ofing programs for young children are affecting the curriculum. This study does not confirm that parents views regarding curriculum implementation are sufficient to implement a favorable program. Nevertheless, it considers their views because they form part of childrens learning environment. It is important to gain their views about play-based education because aside from the teacher, they are the ones who have access to information regarding their childrens development and ability whether in school or outside it. It has been reported that, in response to demands for accountability and to parental pressures, many early childhood curricula are being narrowed by focusing on more academic and subject-centered teaching (Meisels, 1989). Therefore, it is important to investigate parental perceptions and attitudes toward the play-based curriculum. It is important then to share and equip them with the knowledge that such curricula have been reported to improve the social skills and academic preparation of young children, by inspiring learning through developmentally appropriate activities.
Motivation
As an experienced primary educator, and a current preschool owner and educator, I am interested in how parents perceive a play-based curriculum and whether their decision to enroll their child in a play-based curriculum is borne out offrom their understanding of the program or from other factors. I personally believe in the play- based curriculum and would like to determine if this attitude is shared by the parents. I and, if they do not, I would like to knowwhat perceptions they have the basis for their dislike of regarding such a the curriculum. My pParents of my students are informed of our play-based curriculum at enrollment. Despite this I am, however, some still confront me with disbelief about the curriculum.sometimes confronted by less than enthusiastic believers. Does parental attitude towards play change as the child gets older As an educator and business owner and educator, this study would lead me to a better understanding of parents view aboutI am using this study to understand how these parents view play. It would provide me with basis to continue or revise my present curriculum.
An understanding of parental perception of the curriculum will help me to adequately communicate realistic expectations for the program and its benefits to young children.
Keywords
Preschool Programs refers to the pre-kindergarten programs that are geared towards preparing
children ages 2-5 years old for kindergarten. The programs offer various services for different age groups and adopt different curriculum models. In this study, preschool programs refer to the setting and object of the research work.
Curriculum Models refers to an educational system that combines theory with practice. A
curriculum model has a theory and knowledge base that reflects a philosophical orientation and is supported, in varying degrees, by child development research and educational evaluation. The practical application of a curriculum model includes guidelines on how to set up the physical environment, structure the activities, interact with children and their families, and support staff members in their initial training and ongoing implementation of the program. In this study, the model used by the preschool program is a play-based curriculum.
Play-based curriculum refers to the learning model based on for young children that are developmentally appropriate play. Thise model is child-centered it is based on childrens interest, to ensure maximized participation, focus, and learningindicating that the learning experiences are designed to focus on how children discover and learn.
Developmentally appropriate practices practices that are designed for the age group served and implemented with attention to the need and differences of the individual children enrolled (Bredekamp, 1998 p. 53). In this study, developmentally appropriate practices refer to the teaching practices of kindergarten teachers as it is manifested in their classes.
Goddard Schools franchised preschools that offer children an opportunity to learn in an engaging and creative manner where learning stations are provided for individual play. The school adopts a play-based curriculum and focuses on seven learning domains personal and social development, language and literacy, mathematical thinking, scientific thinking, social studies, creative expression, and physical development.
Beliefs refer to a set of ideas or thoughts that a person finds important or that influences his or her feelings, attitudes, and behavior. Beliefs are subjective and can be measured by asking participants to elucidate their thoughts on a certain topic or issue.
Attitudes refer to a social construct that is predetermined by a persons beliefs. If the belief is negative, then the attitude toward the issue or problem is also negative. Attitudes are associated with stereotypes of what is socially acceptable.
Feelings refer to the affective component of an individuals belief and attitude towards a certain issue or topic. Feelings are associated with the personal experience and evaluation of the said issue.
UnderstandingPerception refers to the totality of the individuals beliefs, attitudes, and feelings towards a certain issue or topic.
Summary of Chapter 1
Chapter 1 provides the introduction of the topic and a description of the problem to beI am investigateding. The chapter is designed to provide the readers with an overview of the studythe problem, setting, background, and means to obtain findings. and In addition, it also identifieswith the key concepts that will be measured and analyzed. The purpose and motivation for the current study provides the rationale and importance of the current study. The next chapter will provide a review of literaturepresent the related studies, which helps to provide direction to the studyand researches on play-based curriculum and parental choice of preschools.
., Also, later I see narrative, and so you need to give some hint of what we should expect. I may look at the rest more in-depth, but these are my general concerns. Id really like to work hard on chapter one (you have a good beginning) and then the rest will fall into place a bit easier, especially after we have your question(s) well articulated.
Tina,
In general, I dont see much or anything on parents perceptions in Chapter two and that is a key part of your question. So, you may need more reading there. Chapter 3, at the beginning, brings up critical inquiry. I think you should stay with your social constructivism lens that you are grappling with her, based on what you have written as key words, etc., Also, later I see narrative, and so you need to give some hint of what we should expect. I may look at the rest more in-depth, but these are my general concerns. Id really like to work hard on chapter one (you have a good beginning) and then the rest will fall into place a bit easier, especially after we have your question(s) well articulated. This doesnt mean you wont rewrite, but you need it to be clear because once you start with data collection, it gets really messy Fun, engaging, but more messy with figuring out the datafindings. Good Luck And, Im a phone call away. Dr. Lash
Chapter 2 Literature Review
The Literature Review presents information related to preschool programs and the play-based curriculum. The goal of the chapter is to describe the context in which preschool programs, play-based curriculum, and parental choices have been studied in the past, and the implications of research findings to current practice. The literature review is organized from the general to the specific, which means that a general overview of preschool programs is provided, followed by a discussion of the play-based curriculum. Studies on parental choice and perceptions are then incorporated to show how parental perceptions factor into recent studies on early childhood education programs. The studies and materials presented in this chapter were gathered from numerous article databases, personal readings, and library sources the sources were identified by using keywords, such as play-based curriculum, preschool, and parental choice.
A Theoretical Perspective
Early childhood education has been established as an important factor in overall human development. In a theoretical framework, education greatly influences human development from a very young age education contributes to the effective emotional, social and intellectual growth of the person. Interestingly, in a more traditional and rationalist view, education has been regarded as a primary source for intellectual development (Blenkin Kelly, 1996). Although true, this perspective limits the scope of development and the perception of how a person can take advantage of their access to educational channels.
Proof that intellectual development is a primary expectation in education, even during the early childhood years, was noted by Goodlad (1985). Inevitably, as pointed out by the author, parents look for schools that will provide their child the support needed for their expected intellectual goals. The author also mentioned that a survey among parents to gauge their expectations from school and their perceptions on what their child should eventually attain through the program is based on the traditional view of what is intelligent. The school is supposed to teach the student the academics because intelligence needs to be developed, as opposed to developing human values, which are, according to some theories and some perceptions, fixed, as discussed by Mortimer Adler and Robert Hutchinson (Blenkin Kelly, 1996).
This idea of education being instrumental in intellectual development can be related to the idea of the development of the philosopher-kings, as seen in the discourses of Plato. Other discussions have emphasized the role of education in the development of the mind, as written by Richard Peters and Paul Hirsts, who assert that education is instrumental in the development of the different areas across a childs rationality (as cited in Blenkin Kelly, 1996).
It can be observed that education has come to mean more than academics, but at an early stage, early education students are typically expected to be developed and prepared for the long path towards intellectual development. Apparently, the emergence of the importance of other developmental areas reflects a rejection of a rationalism which cannot cope with the emotional side of human life the corollary to that is that it cannot handle the notion of individual human differences (Blenkin Kelly, 1996).
Another theoretical platform for the rational aspect of development and education is based on the idea of instrumentality here, education is seen as the instrument of development, leading the child to eventually become functional according to the intellectual, economic, vocational, and utilitarian functions. What comes to mind here, according to Blenkin and Kelly (1996), is a view expressed by Rosseau that a child is a man-in-the-making, thereby his or her treatment should be a reflection of that. In addition, such treatment should also look(ing) for the man in the child, without considering what he is before he becomes a man (as cited in Blenkin Kelly).
However, with the emergence of educational theories, education is now viewed as having different facets. The common notion, when it comes to the priority of intellectual goals, is that these are now integrated with other aspects of development, an approach which further enhances what human development should be all about. Some of the most noted educational theories that have served as a foundation of education in the Twentieth Century are the works of John Dewey. With the introduction of the experiential continuum, rationalism is rejected, and the child or the student is viewed as a continuously developing person in which the learning process does not end.
The early stages of learning are no longer regarded as being solely for the purpose of preparing the child for intellectual goals, but, rather, to establish the continuous experience of learning. Which is why, as Blanken and Kelly (1996) pointed out, it is important for education to provide channels spanning across the affective domain and not just limited to intellectual development.
Over the years, in the development of early education models, many factors, which step beyond the intellectual goals, have been integrated. For one, Hurst (1997) noted that a childs environment is now taken into consideration. An important component that has been highlighted is the relationship of the child with family, relatives, friends, and the immediate social realities of the child. For one, in a culturally diverse society, it is an ideal scenario in which the child at an early age is also exposed to a culturally diverse environment. Given that there are many changes that have been taking place, it is evident that these changes also have been reflected in educational policies and practices (Nutbrown, 2002).
Clearly, educational policies have become the main framework in the design of the school curricula. However, despite the emphasis on the importance of the effective domain in education, these policies have become respondent to surveys that highlight the shortcomings on the skills of the students. This is to say that the intellectual goals remain to be the priority because of the continuous importance of academic achievement (Nutbrown, 2002).
The pull between intellectual achievement and the affective domain can be regarded to have influenced the design of educational policies and even the strategies of many schools. Finding the balance, apparently, has been the greatest challenge of all. However, from the perspective of the school, the element that critically plays into the foundations of the design is the perspective of the parents. Because it is the parents who enroll their child in these programs, schools, therefore, need to highlight how their institution can provide for the needs of the child.
The definition of a good school may vary. There are the different degrees of challenges and considerations when it comes to packaging a school. Such reputation is very critical for early education, because it is considered as an important starting point of a childs development. Generally, parents want to enroll their child in a good school, and, generally, this good school has to meet the expectations and the goals of the parents for their child. What is interesting is that, as Nutbrown (2002) pointed out, albeit these theoretical discussions on the workable educational models and platform for a more substantial view on child development, education continues to be defined according to the perception of the adults, and the parents play at least contributory role in the development of these educational strategies.
Early Childhood Education Programs
Early childhood education programs have been in existence in U.S. educational settings since the early half of the last century. The term is synonymous to preschool and kindergarten in the sense that it advocates the learning of very young children (Ailwood, 2003). It is differentiated from daycare centers and childcare centers because the programs are guided by a curriculum emphasizing learning through several methods and approaches. There is a strong focus on learning life skills and school readiness, while daycare centers only provide activities and child care services to young children. Moreover, early childhood education programs are geared for three-to-five-year-old children, while daycare centers also cater to much younger children. The different curricula and instructional approach to the teaching of young children have been numerous and varied, often reflecting the educational reform or policy of the country or state. For example, the present emphasis on academic excellence and accountability has swept the early childhood education programs into the teaching of skills and concepts that are not developmentally appropriate.
In the United States, the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) is the organization that represents the educational needs of young children and works closely with federal agencies in the promotion and evaluation of early-childhood education programs. The NAEYC advocated for the development of preschool and kindergarten programs that are developmentally appropriate and, consequently, undertook accreditation of preschools meeting their quality standards. Parents should be well aware that preschools having received accreditation have the highest standards and are following the rules and regulations that the organization has found to be most beneficial to children zero-to-eight years old. In their position statement, the NAEYC said that preschools should adopt curricula that are well-planned, challenging, developmentally appropriate, culturally and linguistically responsive, comprehensive, and promote the well-being of all children. The NAEYC sets the standard from which preschools should be evaluated, but despite being the leader in early childhood education, preschools generally adopt their own curriculum according to state standards. There is a discrepancy, however, in what are deemed appropriate practices for preschools, as advocated by NAEYC and the current preschool programs available in the country.
Developmental theories, especially regarding cognitive development, stress that young children are not cognitively prepared to absorb abstract information, and that they have a short attention span, both of which hamper their learning. Teaching overly abstract concepts to young children can negatively affect their self-esteem they often fail in tasks for which they are not yet developmentally mature enough to accomplish. In a longitudinal study of preschool children, Marcon (2002) revealed that children who experienced academically driven preschool curricula had lower rates of retention and poor grades compared to children who were in a child-initiated preschool program. Such findings have not prevented preschools from following academically-focused curriculums, as a majority of preschools were found to stress literacy, reading, and numbers (Marcon, 2002).
In a survey of early childhood programs and teachers in the country, it was found that most child-care centers are privately owned and are for-profit, although there has been an increase in the public school programs. Moreover, the teacher-student ratios are more favorable in centers run by religiouscommunity groups than by private individuals. Most of the teachers are Caucasian and have attained a college degree, although type of degree and qualifications vary for each center. Most children in said centers are ethnically diverse (Saluja, Early, Clifford, 2002). This finding suggests that preschools are run by private individuals or groups that may, or may not, adopt appropriate practices, but cater more to the expectations of the parents. For example, a preschool that originally adopted a High Scope approach would later incorporate academics into their program, because parents demand that their children have academically oriented lessons. And, since preschools are not regulated by any government agency in terms of program offerings and standards, preschools do not hesitate to tailor their program to the demands of the parents, whether it is developmentally appropriate.
Parents need to be informed about the different early childhood education programs available in their locality they need to be aware of the learning philosophies and teaching methods of the teachers because of their impact on the children. The concern over the quality and the preparation needed by young children before enrolling in preschool comes from the parents teachers, on the other hand, do not share the same expectations (West, 1993). Teachers basically know that young children come to school with very little preparation and that it is their job to introduce children to the basics of language, letters, and numbers within the time that children spend in school (Bennett, Wood, Rogers, 1998). Parents on the other hand stress the need for having their child readied for preschool through home activities and role playing. Although this can help children become prepared for school, it may also place unnecessary pressure on the child, when preschool should be fun and not tedious.
Preschool Curriculum Models
Preschool curricula are numerous, each having its own teaching philosophy and concentration. Preschool curricula in America either strictly follow a key philosophy, such as Montessori, Reggio Emilia, or Waldorf, or focus on the educational objective of the curriculum, such as academic-based and play-based. Whatever the program, the National Association for the Education of Young Children advocates the use of developmentally appropriate practices for all preschool curricula (Berk, 2001). Developmental appropriateness indicates that young childrens cognitive, social, emotional, and physical development should be nurtured, encouraged, and reinforced in a learning environment that emphasizes creativity, play, and discovery.
In a survey of preschool programs in the early history of preschool education, the most widely adopted curriculum is Montessori (Dahlberg, Moss, Pence, 1999). This curriculum focuses on the childs pacing and needs for example, children in Montessori schools are not forced to take a test or to complete an activity in a given period of time. The child can work on the activity as long as it takes himher to finish it. Many parents have found this curriculum to be beneficial to their child, since it is not stressful. Despite the self-pacing aspect of Montessori programs, children are required to work on literacy and numeracy skills using worksheets and other prepared activities. The teacher serves as a guide rather than as an instructor. Children are given the independence to choose what they want to work on and whether they need help. The Montessori approach is suited for children who would benefit from a hands-on approach and for those who might need special attention, since teachers provide individual attention to students (Haines, 2000).
The Goddard School has embraced an approach that has become popular in recent years. Goddard schools are franchised preschools located around the country, having their own set of learning goals through their branded Flex (Fun Learning Experience) curriculum and objectives. This curriculum follows the tradition of not rushing the child to complete an activity or worksheet. The Goddard School focuses on the delivery of seven learning domains personal and social development, language and literacy, mathematical thinking, scientific thinking, social studies, creative expression, and physical development. At the same time, the Goddard School adopts a play-based curriculum by utilizing learning stations that encourage children to play. These stations aid in discovery, allowing children to learn in the classroom, while engaging in either solitary or group play. The teacher serves as the facilitator and guide through teacher-student interactions and other activities (Wenner, 2009).
The Waldorf approach is a relatively new program that private preschools have adopted in this country it originated in Austria and has been a popular model. The Waldorf approach is geared towards developing the spirit, soul, and body of the child. Thus, Waldorf programs create nurturing environments for children so they can engage in creative play and discovery. Typical activities in Waldorf programs include painting, coloring, singing, reciting poems, building houses from boxes and pretend play. Generally, this approach is beneficial to all children, specifically those who enjoy being in groups (MacNaughton Williams, 2009).
The High-scope approach is based on the theory that children learn best when they are actively involved with people, materials, ideas, and events. The children are given the freedom to choose their own materials and activities, and teachers support this type of independence. The High-scope programs have been found to be effective despite their newness in the preschool arena. The approach was originally designed for at-risk urban children it has also been used in conjunction with the Headstart programs initiated by the Federal Government. The High-scope program identified key experiences that all preschool children should be able to have. These include creative representation, language and literacy, movement, music, numbers, classification, time, and others. The use of computer programs is essential to the preschool program, since carefully chosen educational games and software can increase the learning experience of the child (MacNaughton Williams, 2009).
Among the practices used in developmentally appropriate classrooms is the integrated curriculum. Jinnah and Walters (2008) define integration as the combining of separate elements to make up a whole in that the separate parts lack something. In an integrated approach to curricular development, young children may engage in interactions that use math, science, social studies, or language knowledge and skills to solve problems and complete projects. This curricular approach is represented through projects and learning centers that have been the hallmark of early childhood educators who have stressed the total development of the child (Kagan, 1995).
Childrens modes of learning and communication used in questioning, reporting, problem solving, and analyzing are supported through an integrated curriculum (Barbour, 1987 Bredekamp, 1987). Saluja, Early, and Clifford (2002), reported that the act of thinking automatically integrates cognitive, motor, and social-emotional development. Early childhood educators have reported that childrens learning proceeds simultaneously, rather than in a tidy, segmented, hierarchical package (Christie Enz, 1992). Pellegrini (1980) stated that the integrated curriculum provides for maximum growth and eliminates subject-related distinctions. This approach allows for flexibility in individuals and in group-time organization.
Academic-based curricula, or those advocating the use of worksheets to teach children numbers and letters and reading, have been a popular component of almost all preschool programs. The emphasis on learning numbers and letters is due to the competitive nature of formal schooling, standards, and standardized testing. Parents often demand that their children be taught the said skills in preparation for kindergarten. With the emphasis on academic achievement and grades, it is no wonder that many parents feel that the academic-based curriculum is what preschools should be about (MacNaughton Williams, 2009). Even though studies repeatedly found the use of worksheets to be developmentally inappropriate for children in preschool, because cognitive and motor abilities of young children are not developed well enough to work successfully on worksheet tasks, skill instruction through worksheets and drills continues to be an integral component of preschool programs.
A key component of a play-based curriculum is the use of learning centers throughout the classroom area. There are spaces provided for art work with colors, paper, paint, pictures, tables, and chairs another area is set aside for pretend play, with a mini kitchen and a small house, where skills, such as brushing teeth, washing hands, and other life skills, are learned. Still, in another area is a reading center, where books are plentiful sofas or mats are placed to make reading comfortable. The number of learning centers is limited only by the resources and the creativity of the teachers, although basic learning centers must be present in each classroom to ensure the quality of the program (Elkind, 2007).
Some kindergarten teachers are intimidated by the use of play in the classroom. Perrone (2000) suggested that classroom teachers are those best suited for making decisions about using play in the classroom, but, because of earlier, negative experiences, many kindergarten teachers believe they are incompetent to provide play for young children. Furthermore, teachers that do provide play experiences are often proceeding through instinct, because of a lack of information regarding appropriate play experiences of young children (Perrone, 2000). At the same time, play-based teachers often are met with resistance, both from parents and from administrators, in the use of play in the classroom, as they are skeptical with the approach (Christie Clements, 2003). Moreover, play-based teaching is not popular with kindergarten schools because of emphasis on learning standards, mandated by the federal government, that require students to reach certain benchmarks. It is evident that play-based teaching is viewed negatively by many parents, administrators, and some teachers, however beneficial it has been found for children (Benz Christie, 1997).
Because of their relevance to the total development of each child, play activities that are integrated into the daily curriculum are offered once-a-week (Bredekamp, 1987). Bayless and Ramsey (1997) suggested that play be integrated throughout the day. Their suggestions included using themes to enhance reading skills, to develop skills related to science and number, and to support social development. Others have suggested that play be used to support child growth development, as well as to support different aspects of curriculum. Bergen (1998) stated that play experiences can enhance social and physical development, as well as creative expressions. Curran (1999) suggested that play be a part of learning centers dramatic play, outdoor play, rest time, special occasions, and listening games. Bergen (1998) stated that, in addition to being a part of planned daily activities, play should be used spontaneously to support other curricular areas, to promote variety, and to provide transitions into activities. Without a doubt, play can be used in the classroom setting. There are many ways in which it can be utilized, either as a learning tool, instructional aid, or even as a recreational break from the rigors of daily classroom lessons and drills. The problem, however, is that teachers are not receptive to the idea of using play in the classroom due to classroom management issues, teacher preparation, and the lack of instructional materials (Cannella, 1997).
In summary, most preschool curriculum models were created following the developmental stages of cognitive development, in line with Piagetian Theory. These models take into account that children learn differently from adults, and this recognition has influenced most preschool curriculum models over the past century. The preschool curriculum models described above are known to be developmentally appropriate for children, except for the academics-based model, where there is heavy emphasis on rote learning and literacy and numeracy (Curtis Routledge, 2002). Most parents are unaware of the different curricula used to help their preschool students learn whether the schools to which they send their children have developmentally appropriate practices. The following section provides a discussion of developmentally appropriate practices and the work that has been done in this area.
Developmentally Appropriate Practices
The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) advocates that all children should have access to developmentally appropriate curricula in preschool. Thus, preschool programs should focus on the totality of the childs development and not just one or two aspects. In this regard, programs that place emphasis on academics play or life skills, only, are not in accordance with the NAEYCs mandate. Developmentally appropriate activities facilitate the active exploration of the childs interactions with adults, other children, and learning materials (Bredekamp, 1987).
Developmentally appropriate curricula provide children with the opportunity to work with other children in groups or engage in solitary activities. Moreover, children can initiate, direct, and practice skills at any given time. It is also important that materials, activities, and games are all concrete and relevant to children and are provided in a learning environment that favors unstructured thinking. Moreover, developmentally appropriate practices are based on developmental and cognitive theories that help to inform the best methods for teaching young children (Bredecamp Copple, 1997). The term developmentally appropriate indicates that learning experiences are geared towards the cognitive, social, and psychological orientation of the child, in the knowledge that these practices cultivate the best conditions for the learning of young children.
Given that developmentally appropriate practices are mandated by early childhood education advocates, too many preschool programs do not adhere to these provisions instead, they emphasize academic instruction and the performance of state laws, policies, and standardized testing demands (Bridge, 2001). Even with the existence of empirically validated curricula, many kindergarten teachers are mandated to use curricula that provide first priority to teaching subjects, relegating developmental needs as secondary (New, Mardell, Robinson, 2005). Many of these mandates concern standardized tests. Early childhood and primary teachers are in agreement with the need for developmentally appropriate practices, but, because of the focus on specific scores from standardized tests, they are prevented from doing what is best for students (Bredekamp Shepard, 1999). There is also evidence that many early childhood teachers are choosing developmentally inappropriate practices, even without mandates (Bergen, 2002). Bredekamp (1987) states that developmentally inappropriate programs include learning activities that are mostly large-group oriented, teacher directed, as well as structured. Instructional strategies that include whole group lectures, paper-and-pencil workbook exercises, and silent work at individually assigned seats are also inappropriate. When children are forced to work on learning tasks in the manner that older children do, it places them in a precarious position in which they will come to perceive learning as tedious, difficult, frustrating, and stressful (Bredekamp,1987). When young children develop the said attitudes to learning, it is expected that they will eventually have a negative view of learning, and, consequently, be prone to underachieving or to having a false sense of what learning should be. Coupled with inappropriate practices, parents also contribute to the undue stress of preschool learning by pitting one child against another, creating unconstructive competition that sets the child up to become competitive (Cannella, 1997).
Developmentally inappropriate practices have been found to cause stress in administrators, teachers, and children. In a study of kindergarten practices in Ohio, Hatch and Freeman (1988) reported that children were not the only ones affected by an inappropriate focus on academic skills. Teachers, principals, and supervisors were also found to be victims of stress because of the increased potential for student failure. Children, especially in the preschool age, do not have the cognitive skills to learn and master academic content such as reading and writing thus, it is almost expected that children would fail standardized exams (McMullen Lash, 2004). Legislation against including kindergarten on academic achievement tests should be passed, since it is not needed. A study by Wiedey and Lichtenstein (1997) found that of seven student stressors reported by kindergarten teachers, academic tasks which were developmentally inappropriate caused the second most severe symptoms in students. In their study, Burts et al. (1993) found that more stress-related behaviors were exhibited in developmentally inappropriate classrooms than in developmentally appropriate classrooms.
Developmentally inappropriate programs miss opportunities for optimal learning. When children are tasked to work on activities and materials ill-suited to their cognitive abilities, they will develop adverse reactions to the materials children who are forced to read might not develop the love for reading, thereby limiting the kind of attitudes towards learning that the child should have developed (Gomez, Stone, Kroeger, 2004). Based on Piagetian understandings about how children learn, programs which stress single-subject teaching with an emphasis on academics lessen opportunity for growth in other areas (Peck et al., 1999). Programs that classify information in discrete categories are providing learning experiences typically used with adults, not young children (Elkind, 1987). Children learn differently from adults, and even Piaget, who was a cognitivist, believed that children learn best through play. Play for young children is the manner in which they interact with other children and with objects that will teach them about the world. When learning activities do not incorporate play or do not take into account the manner in which young children learn, then those activities become developmentally inappropriate.
Certification does not necessarily qualify a teacher to provide developmentally appropriate experience. Bredekamp (1987) reported that teachers are certified by many states as qualified to teach four-and-five-year-olds, regardless of related teacher-specialized training or supervised experiences with children from this age group. In many states, the scope of certification is kindergarten through third, or kindergarten through sixth grade, with little emphasis placed on planning and implementing the curriculum for kindergarten. This leaves teachers inadequately prepared for planning an effective program for kindergarten, which results in the pushing down of philosophies, curricula, and methods from the upper grade levels (Grannuci, 1990). Grannuci continued that, with teacher certification extending from kindergarten to sixth or eight grade, states run the risk of having certified kindergarten teachers who have no fieldwork experience with kindergarten children. Such policies may be responsible for the increasing focus on academics in kindergarten programs.
An Educational Research Services study of kindergarten teachers perceptions of the primary focus of the program reflected the inconsistencies between certification and practice. The results of this nationwide study of 1,082 kindergarten teachers concluded that eight and one-tenth percent of the respondents focused on child development while 62.9 percent focused on academic readiness (Gardner, 1986). Coinciding with this response is Elkinds report (1987) with findings of similar conflicts between kindergarten teachers practices and what is actually appropriate for young children. It can be surmised that teachers focus on academic development rather than on what is appropriate for children this may be due to the heavy emphasis placed on teaching academic skills rather than on life skills. Most of teacher training is geared towards the increase in academic performance as measured by statewide tests and accountability measures (Pajares, 1992).
Developmentally appropriate practices are said to be an ideal, rather than a reality. For example, many educators and learning specialists agree that preschools should adopt developmentally appropriate practices in the delivery of learning curriculum to young children, but the reality is that not many schools adhere to those practices (Reifel, 1999). With the pressure to increase academic achievement, children are now being subjected to worksheets, letters, numbers, and simple arithmetic and science concepts even before they reach kindergarten. A handful of preschools and teachers adopt developmentally appropriate practices. However, instead of being the norm, they become the exception, as the idea is not very popular with parents, administrators, and teachers since it would entail additional work on the teachers part, and parents place premium on academic skills training (Roskos Neuman, 1993).
Developmentally appropriate practices stress the use of play, exploration, and discovery in the classroom. The most salient example of a developmentally appropriate practice in the learning of young children is the play-based curriculum. The next section discusses the play-based curriculum, and why it is the most appropriate for the education of young children. Likewise, attention will be given to the related studies on preschools and the play-based curriculum, and the attitudes of parents, teachers, and administrators towards the said curriculum model.
Play-based Curriculum
The play-based curriculum is endorsed by preschool educators because it is arguably the most appropriate learning environment for young children it supports their need for exploration, discovery, and attention. For most educators, play-based curriculum is a must for preschool programs in concordance with other learning activities (McMullen, Buldu, Lash Alat, 2004). The interest on play-based curriculum, however, has waned as an increasing number of parents demand that their children be introduced to skills such as writing, reading, and counting. Moreover, parents have difficulty understanding what play-based curriculum is, and how it encourages learning and discovery. Parents are not comfortable with the term play, as it denotes aimless activities without the benefit of any learning (Fromberg, 1998). Much of the misperception of play-based curriculum is brought about by the low value that parents place on play.
The play-based curriculum can be also explained in its the principle of teacher-directed and child-initiated activities (Wood, 2004). In essence, how this works is that learning through play is not left to chance, but is channeled through complex and reciprocal relationships it is situated in activities which are socially constructed and mediated (Wood, 2004). The challenge is the process and the strategy that incorporates the subject disciplines with the activities play in this context is not just about activity, but also involves the art of making this strategy effective.
According to Wood (2004), the strength of play-based pedagogy is that it supports what can be considered as characteristics of effective pedagogy sustained shared thinking, joint involvement, and co-construction (21). Play-based pedagogies have been endorsed by early childhood educators, but there remains the challenge of how to effectively implement it. It was found that, in addition to the concerns of the content of the curricula, the process of finding the balance between adult-directed activities and the self-initiated activities of the children is not as easy to achieve. The teachers and the school need to be able to incorporate these two approaches in order to come up with quality play that works in the required context of accountability, performance and achievement.
In order to understand how play has come as an important practice in early childhood education, an understanding of its theoretical foundations is significant. The theoretical support for play in education has been identified in the Piagetian and constructivist theories, in addition to its adherence to methodological orientations. Relevant frameworks supporting play are found in socio-cultural and activity theories, especially as to how play can affect behaviors and, eventually, the childs learning (Wood, 2004). Furthermore, There is substantial evidence that through play, children demonstrate improved verbal communication, high levels of social and interaction skills, creative use of play materials, imaginative and divergent thinking skills, and problem solving capabilities (Wood, 2004, 21).
Play-based curricula are more than just play although the main component of the learning experience is accommodated through play, the activities and learning stations designed for optimum learning are carefully planned-out activities that encourage learning through play (Grossman, 2004). Children who are playing with blocks and putting puzzles together learn about relationships, size, shapes, and coordination (Duncan Tarulli, 2003). Additionally, their fine motor skills are developed and enhanced, preparing them for the grasping and control of pencils and crayons, which are utilized in later learning. Children who work with paint and colors learn about relationships, colors, and cause and effect. Learning to read, write, and count is not achieved simply by rote learning if parents and teachers want the best learning environment for their children, then learning these skills should be incorporated into play (Elkind, 2007).
Play is not as simple as it may seem when parents dismiss play as purely a leisure activity, they do not consider that play is a complex exchange of ideas and behavior between the child and another child, or between the child and the toy (Elkind, 2007). When young children are engaged in solitary play, it provides them the opportunity to explore the toy and to learn on their own (McCune Zanes, 2001). When a child plays with other children, heshe learns how to negotiate, compromise, and share with other children, as well as discover that other children have different views and experiences (Kim, 1999). Play is not just play, it engages the senses, the cognitive process, and the emotional aspect of the child. Puzzles, dolls, and pretend play utilizes critical thinking, creativity, and imagination, which are all critical for cognitive development (Christie, 2001).
The play-based curriculum is suited for all young children it offers both the structure and the flexibility that children need at their age. Playing is not harmful to children it is enjoyable, fun, and effective in introducing children to new concepts and ideas (Berk, 2001). Since the activities and learning stations in play-based classrooms had been developed in accordance with cognitive, affective, and social skills, it is expected that children who attend play-based preschools have better adjustment and social skills compared to those who attend traditional preschools (Jones Cooper, 2006).
The source of confusion and possible aversion to the concept of play as a learning method is that play is synonymous to activities that are purely for enjoyment and without purpose. Parents, and even teachers, fail to realize that play engages the young child more than anything else in the classroom or even in their daily lives (Clayton, 2007). It is through play that children learn about their world, their environment, and the people they interact with they build social skills that are important as they grow and become older. Children also learn to make use of their fine motor skills, their imagination, and creativity during play. During an interview with play-based teachers on the resistance of parents and administrators to the model, a number of teachers reported that they lacked support from their principals. Further, these teachers stated that they became tired of their principals comments during classroom observation, because, when using play during classroom instruction, they were asked when will the children start to do the real work (Neuman Roskos, 1997). This would imply that some principals do not view play as a learning medium and, therefore, unnecessary for classroom instruction.
Language development and reading are key areas encouraged by play-based curricula During play, a young child must communicate his or her wants and understanding of the play activity to the other children. In this manner, play encourages language usage and acquisition. In the same respect, children engaging in enjoyable activities, like book reading and exploration, are introduced to different words and letters, activating the mechanism for learning language and literacy (Frost, Wortham, Reifel, 2001). When children enjoy what they do, there is less risk of activities becoming stressful or taxing for them instead they develop a love for learning (Wilcox-Herzog, 2002). Previous learning experiences become the basis for future learning, and the attitudes that children form towards learning. It is the goal of educators to provide a positive learning experience so that children will come to enjoy and love learning (Fleer, 2009).
Other forms of play, such as drama, role playing, art sessions, and music, also encourage the development of the brain and cognitive abilities, which will be very useful when they go to formal schooling (Berk, Mann, Ogan, 2006). Children demonstrate their learning and mastery through play they imitate what they see in a fun and unthreatening environment. In early-childhood, children engage in imaginative play to try out new songs, dances, and stories (Graue, Kroeger, Brown, 2003). Play also supports diversity and cultural differences as children are introduced to the rich and diverse cultural traditions of other races (Abbott, 1994). Play-based curricula seem to be too good to be true one of the reasons why it is often unpopular with parents. But, given the appropriate teacher training, sufficient resources, learning stations, and adequate materials and facilities, play-based curricula would be the best learning environment for preschool children (Grossman, 2004).
According to cognitive theorists like Jean Piaget, play is the key medium whereby interpersonal skills, discovery, exploration, and confidence are developed. At the same time, play is initiated by children, enabling them to interact with other children or to engage in solitary play, which is common in young children (Fromberg, 1998). The benefits of play are numerous, but play as a learning tool has not received the kind of attention and support those educators would like it to have.
Individual Benefits of a Play-based Early Childhood Curriculum
Beliefs, attitudes and perception on how children learn can range from the fundamentals of cognitive development to the discourse on learning theory. Evidently, scholarly works in these areas play an important role in the formation of education theories, particularly in how to best formulate instructional strategies, based on the understanding of how children learn. However, common perception on learning is typically associated with formal schooling environment, thus eliminating, or minimizing, the impact of learning channels even before the child steps into a school. The formative years of human development are crucial for more than one reason. These early formative years serve as a period when self-regulation develops, including many key aspects pertinent to life for example, impulse and emotion control, self-guidance of thought and behavior, planning, self-reliance, and socially responsible behavior (Bronson, 2001 Kopp, 1991). Self-regulation is reflected in the preschool years by children showing signs of patience, through refraining from running after desired objects, or by offering help to other children. Therefore, achieving self-regulation at an early age can equip children to meet complex challenges, which may include the day-to-day academic and social requirements of school to decision making on larger social issues in the later years (Frost, Wortham, Reifel, 2008).
However, formation of a balanced self-regulation depends heavily on the quality of external stimuli, as early childhood is also the high season of imaginative play (Singer and Singer, 1990), a time when children dwell more on make-believe situations. The noted psychologist Vygotsky (1. 1898, 3. 1933) also identified that make-believe play is one of the prime catalysts of human development. Other researchers like Bronson (2001) and Eisenberg, Smith, Sadovsky and Spinrad (2004) thus identify self-regulation as the crowning achievement of early childhood.
Self-regulation is learned through the childs interaction with his or her environment. According to Erikson, it is a developmental task that, when mastered by the child, signals that he or she is ready to move on to the next task, which involves industriousness and initiative. Thus, play is beneficial to children in any form, and learning, when integrated into play, becomes more beneficial. Even simple solitary play teaches children to focus their attention on a single object or activity this builds patience and perseverance that they can use in the more advanced forms of learning, such as visual discrimination and reading (Genishi, Dyson, Fassler, 1994). How a child learns is initially perceived by how the child responds. According to Freeman (2009), a means to figure out how a child learns is through their native or instinctive responses, thus, highlighting how these responses can be developed according to some form of strategic training. It is through these responses that they indicate how a child may be inherently equipped when it comes to their eventual exposure to everyday life.
Learning, of course, is evident in the development of the range of skills a person goes through learning begins with the development of manual skills and, then, memorization. A child demonstrates the ability to learn when applying basic information, such as identifying objects, by adding more moves to a basic movement. Freeman (2009) mentioned that at these early stages, a child already shows signs of the psychology of learning. Natural responses of children, according to the author, can be further assessed according to transfer of training and economy in mental work (Freedman, 2009, 2).
In this case, Freedman (2009) pointed out that speech, inner choice , and a range of other responses, not immediately obvious, incorporate the skills learned by a child. This theory highlight the complexity of learning and development, where a combination of the internal and external factors contributes to how a child learns. The internal factors include the physiological and biological characteristics of the child that provide the individual with the basic hardware to learn the formative external aspects interact with the internal components.
Cognitive development naturally plays a central role in how children learn. Wood (1998) mentioned a series of cognitive development theories that emerged in the past centuries, from Piaget to Vygotsky. Piaget would play an important role in the formation of learning theories in the later part of the 20th century, especially in terms of his explanation on the psychology of learning. Wood also cited Pavlovs theories as being foundations for the relationship between response and learning stimuli play an important role in encouraging learning by fulfilling needs. In Richardsons (1998) work, the author enlisted the many theories and models of cognitive development. The nativist model, as the author purported, is pre-deterministic. Contemporary theories on nativism in the context of learning, according to Chomsky, demonstrate the presence of certain inborn qualities that fill the gaps of the daily experience. This is to say that although a child may learn how to speak, based on what he or she hears, not everything the child hears is perfect thus, a child has the inborn ability to learn to speak without entirely depending on what his or her environment teaches. This can be demonstrated in the following diagram (Richardson, 1998, 44).
Mental Association
Mental association is another branch of cognitive development. With its roots traced to ancient Greece, association is based on the concept that the innate mental faculties of individuals allow them to create mental associations that help them to learn. Hence, the registration and storage of memories among individuals are based on how they create specific association systems with the real world. Which is why, when children learn, there is a sense of imitation and an ability to identify objects using other information for example, associating a word with an image (Richardson, 1998).
There are many cognitive development theories that seek to explain a significant component of learning. This approach can touch on psychological aspects, such as motivations to learn and how certain learning approaches are more effective in particular individuals, but are inefficient in others. Such uniqueness has been supported, even as early as the infancy stage, as representative of how the brain is wired (Meltzoff, 2002).
Beadle (1971) presents a developmental timeline as to what happens to the child at the moment of birth. He discusses how physiological factors experienced during the unborns time in the womb can contribute to his or her eventual development. For instance, a lack of oxygen in unborn children can affect their capacity to learn. This same condition can affect the performance of the childs metabolic process. Once a child is born, there is the challenge of adjusting to the extremes, as evidenced in how a newborn adjusts to the new environment. From the fetal to the newborn stage, the baby must adapt to his or her environment. As Beadle pointed out, a child is learning, even at this very early stage.
There is literature that specifically tackles how children learn certain skills. One such discussion is presented by OGrady (2005) in which the author addressed how children learn languages. Interestingly, OGrady provided important insight in terms of this language learning process Childrens talent for language is strangely limited --- theyre good at learning language, but not so good at knowing what to say and what not say (1). Children learn words by simply picking up the sounds made by the people around him or her, and eventually, from sounds, words are picked up. Depending on the rate of development of the child, a one year-old can already demonstrate the ability to utter about ten words, whereas some two year-olds may already form telegramatic sentences.
OGrady (2005) explained two learning styles that can be adopted in learning languages among children. The first is the analytic style which refers to the approach in which the child breaks the speech into smaller and manageable components thus, they usually end up uttering articulated yet short terms. The second is the gestalt style of language learning where the child learns by means of memorization. Because the child memorizes the words according to the sequence that adults use, they get to utter bigger chunks of words. However, as the author pointed out, children do not learn language in a strict manner, but as a result of the combination of the analytical and Gestalt approaches. This demonstrates that when it comes to learning styles, there is no right or wrong approach.
Perceptions and attitudes on how children learn become evident in how parents make their choices for their childs education. For instance, if parents do not believe that children can develop according to the forces of the environment (hence, a naturally smart kid is simply smart), they place little emphasis on the role of education. On the other hand, some parents may not understand cognitive development at all thus, their approach to their childs education is based on the generic approaches to learning, thereby already limiting the childs potential and capability for learning.
An interesting point in these beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions is how parents may overlook the academic bases of theory, which have as a common element the belief that learning starts outside the sphere of formal education that the forces that influence learning are already apparent before the child is born.. As a result, the childs development up to the moment of conception is already overlooked and is not regarded as taking place until formal education has begun.
The learning theory also highlighted its fundamentals as being found in the dynamics of stimuli and response. Evidently, this shows that learning can be encouraged as long as there are substantial sources of stimuli in which case the child can respond by means of interaction and other venues. Freeman (2009) actually mentioned that play is an important stimuli-response activity, showing that play is not just for recreation it is, in fact, integral in the learning process.
Key Aspects of Play
When children are engaged in any form of play, whether make-believe, pretend play, or listening to stories in a playful manner, they become more receptive to learning concepts and relationships than if they were asked to work on worksheets or exercises and drills. This natural and integrated relationship between play and childrens development has always attracted the interest of researchers. A well-established consensus among the professionals engaged in preschool proceedings (Alliance for Childhood, 2006 NAEYC NAECSSDE, 2003) is that play in early childhood is the greatest instrument for cognitive, social, emotional, physical, and moral development, irrespective of their socio-economic, cultural, and linguistic backgrounds (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2006 Elkind, 2007 Zigler, E. Bishop-Josef, S., 2006). Play is the universal language of young children it has been observed that children, regardless of culture and socio-economic status, can play with each other and communicate and interact. This would mean that play does not have to be language specific, nor does it need to be culturally sensitive. Instead, it can be a great medium for universal learning.
While the definition of play suggests a certain lack of structure, the play-based curriculum does not refer to anything that resembles a do-as-you-like or go-as-you-like environment. Rather, play provides a tool that allows teachers to exploit the power of the childrens developing ideas, interests, and competencies (Weis, 1999). Play cannot be an element isolated from the main curriculum rather, it should enable children to develop the appropriate knowledge and skills for becoming successful citizens in their later years. Since the play-based curriculum is not merely letting children play, it should be designed carefully, and should be capable of assisting in the integration of learning goals.
Structured Studies are No Match to Play
Several studies provided evidence that structured, mainly teacher-directed and instructional, models of teaching failed to evoke the interest in children and, consequently, proved ineffective in creating academic success. The techniques allowing childrens self-initiated activities and interests produced results that are far more positive. The researchers also voiced their concerns over the possibility that an over-use of didactic teaching can suppress child-initiated learning, undermining young childrens self-confidence and motivation to learn (Chang, Stipek, Garza, 2006 Shonkoff Phillips, 2000 Singer, Golinkoff, Hirsh-Pasek, 2006).
Grossman (2004) demonstrated how very young children focus more on emotional security. She also pointed out that didactic processes of learning at this stage are not developmentally appropriate and can cause many problems, such as discouraging children from taking risks. Risk-taking should be practiced, since problem-solving involves an element of risk. Grossman also reminded us that, in a play-based curriculum, each day provides opportunities to learn about reading, writing, and mathematics through real, meaningful situations. For example, when children set the table for snacks, providing one napkin, one straw, and one box of milk for each child, or when they string beads to match the pattern on a card, or wait their turn because there is room for only four children at the art table, they are learning mathematics through engagement with their environment (Grossman, 2004).
Grossman (2004) effectively countered, providing evidence of learning in the absence of worksheet, by suggesting the creation of portfolios for each child that contain samples of the childs works, teachers observations, and checklists that record the childs skill development. The importance of play for a young childs development cannot be understated (Vukelich, 1994). Play gives children opportunities to understand the world, interact with others, express and control emotions, develop symbolic capabilities, attempt novel or challenging tasks, solve problems, and practice skills. Play may contribute to the development of posture, movement, and self-sufficiency. There also appears to be a positive relationship between the frequency and complexity of young childrens play and IQ, problem-solving, creativity, language and literacy, and social competence (Isenberg Quisenberry, 2002).
What Happens When Children Play
That play raises every competency important to school success is gaining acceptance, as evidenced by the increase in the amounts of supporting empirical evidence (Isenberg Quisenberry, 2002 Singer, 2006). For example, researchers have already established that high-quality pretend play is related to childrens ability to think abstractly and to evaluate things from others perspectives (Bergen, 2002 Berk, Mann, Ogan, 2006 Singer, Singer, Plason, Schweden, 2003). In addition, researchers also documented the connections between the complexity of childrens pretend play and early literacy, mathematical thinking, and problem-solving (Singer et al., 2006 Smilansky, 1990 Van Hoorn, Nourot, Scales, Alward, 2006).
Shonkoff and Phillips (2000) present three basic reflections that serve as clues to the process of development taking place when children are at play while at play, children are exposed to many opportunities to apply mental representations of the world to new objects, people, and situations. These experiences help develop their ability to handle future academic learning. While at play, children tend to integrate all types of learning, e.g., physical, social, emotional, intellectual, and language development. They become engaged in what they are interested in, and they have a natural motivation to learn (Shonkoff Phillips, 2000).
The above reflections point to the possibility that when children are in their favored environment, they grasp and retain more skills and concepts than those passed on to them through didactic patterns of teaching. Another significant point emerges from the review that children may excel when they are able to develop new concepts through activities that occur naturally to them (Trawick-Smith Picard, 2003). This premise again brings play to the forefront, as play can afford these activities by providing such tasks as counting, sorting, sequencing, predicting, hypothesizing, or evaluating. They meet those challenges with a motivated state of mind (since they are playing), and, during the play process, the children perceive the significance of such tasks and stretch themselves to master them (Hirsh-Pasek, Michnick, Eyer, 2004).
Consequently, it is of little wonder that researchers recommend policies, such as adopting preschool learning standardsfoundations that identify play as a primary method for early learning adopting preschool curricula that emphasize play and child-initiated activities sufficiently funding in-depth training and ongoing education that explain the importance of play to cognitive development conducting parent education programs that can convince the parents about the importance of play in cognitive development and consistently assessing teacher-documented observations of children during play. Additionally, high-stakes testing of preschool children would be ruled out (Tepperman, 2007).
The noted psychologist Vygotsky (1933) also regarded play, especially make-believe play, as a crucial element towards childrens development as early as in 1930s, when he pointed out that
Play creates a zone of proximal development in the child. In play, the child always behaves beyond his average age, above his daily behavior in play it is as though he were a head taller than himself. As in the focus of a magnifying glass, play contains all developmental tendencies in a condensed form and is itself a major source of development (Vygotsky, 1930-351978, p. 102).
Other developmental theorists of the Twentieth Century also viewed play in a preschoolers life from many dimensions, such as regarding it as the private avenue of the preschoolers to practice and solidify symbolic schemes (Piaget, 1936), a form of wish fulfillment that helps them in overcoming fears or anxieties (Freud, 1959), a means for exploring social roles (Erikson, 1950). Undoubtedly, play is an important aspect of a childs life, even without integrating it into classroom learning. Clearly, these early theorists recognized the myriad benefits of play. It would be more sensible to integrate play into learning experiences instead of leaving it out or stereotyping it as without aim or benefit (Hanline, 1999).
The play-based curriculum has been integrated into progressive preschools in the United States, with the growing awareness of play as an excellent medium in which children learn and explore their world. However, there continues to be a misunderstanding of what the play-based curriculum is about and why it is necessary for young children (Sutton-Smith, 1997). Parents are especially skeptical about the play-based curriculum, several demanding that their child be taught letters and numbers at preschool. Some infant school teachers stressed play and deemphasized intellectual pursuits, while others immediately tried to teach the alphabet and reading. Often, it was the parents who insisted that infant schools stress rigid classroom discipline and teach their children how to read. Indeed, many infant school instructors who opposed teaching two- and three-year old children how to read were forced to do so under pressure from the parents. As we shall see, this debate over how very young children should be educated came to play an important role in the eventual demise of the infant schools. (Vinovskisp. 156).
The last section of this review presents the studies and literature on parental choice and preschools, their perception of preschool programs, and the kind of information they seek when considering preschools for their children.
Overall, the support for play in school has been based on studies that demonstrate how play simulates many human functions, thus furthering a childs development. According to Stephens (2009), it is play that enables the development of a childs full potential because of its overall nurturing of development. Albeit the vast support for play in the academe, full support for this strategy is hindered by the perception that play is a distraction from the perceived important points, priorities, and intellectual goals of early child education, and that academic achievement alone translates to success. One cannot say that achievement and success are not related, but such a perception has overlooked the other needs of the child, especially in terms of developing their other intelligences.
Another challenge is that not all play initiatives have been a success. As previously mentioned, initiating play in the early education classroom may be easy in terms of encouraging the interests of the children. However, the learning aspects have been a disappointment in some cases. This is particularly so if the concept is not effectively translated into classroom practices in such cases, play in the classroom results to mere play, such as the child plays at home.
Another argument is raised by Guha (1996) who mentioned that some believe that play is simply a routine for children. Furthermore,
Play is part and parcel of childrens natural behaviour embedded in their day-to-day spontaneous living. It forms an important part of pre-school and out of school early learning. The school has to acknowledge it and build on it, but the schools function is different. Although the learning which accompanies day-to-day living and play maybe uniquely valuable of the individual, it also has several drawbacks. It is haphazard, fragmentary, and because it is unplanned, it may lack direction. (Guha, 1996, 57)
Wood (2004) mentioned that teachers have also acknowledged the difference between the theories that surround play in the classroom and their practices. Wood mentioned a study where teachers identified instances in which their actual practice in the classroom, as compared to the concepts of play, did not match. Admittedly, teachers mentioned instances wherein they over- or under-estimated the competencies of the children, a scenario which would also be frustrating for the students. Among the mediating constraints identified by the teachers are as follows (from Wood, 2004, 22)
pressures and expectations from parents, colleagues, and school inspectors
lack of time for adult involvement the structure of the school day (timetable, fixed times for school assemblies and outdoor play) downward pressures from the national curriculum, and the emphasis on literacy and numeracy
Based on these, it can be gathered that the issue with play-based curricula is that it may not be effective at all because it is routine for children to play. In addition, parents may think that through play, their child is not getting educated properly, especially as education is mostly focused on the academics and literacy. Even though play is normal in early childhood education programs, the amount of play that is integrated may be questioned. This is especially true as parents these days are being exposed to other educational strategies which place more emphasis on academic and intellectual development than on the multi-disciplinary aspect of development.
Factors that Influence Parental Choice of Preschools
Preschool programs range from privately-owned, and managed, to publicly-funded programs learning centers to day care facilities teacher instruction to parent cooperatives. Parents are then faced with the huge task of finding the most suitable and beneficial preschool program for their child. The options are endless and factors such as location, fees, schedule of classes, and friendships influence the decisions parents make (Brain Klein, 1994).
Practicality
Although preschool programs are widely publicly funded, the number of private schools and secular preschool programs are also extensively available. It is a given that parents who find state-funded preschools inadequate would seek other preschools parents who often choose high- quality preschools do so with the goal of providing the best care and learning environment for their children (Maddaus, 1990). But, a majority of parents do not have the same frame of mind sometimes, preschools are seen as a place where children can be left without parental supervision, providing the parent the opportunity to work or to take a rest from the daily toil of childrearing (Brain Klein, 1994).
In a survey of parents, the most cited reason for sending their child to preschool was that there was no one to care for the child at home. It is a reality that most parents work with the pressing economic crisis, it is often necessary to have both parents working or, sometimes, to work two jobs (Gorard, 1997). In another study (Isenberg Quisenberry, 2002), it was found that parents send their children to preschool because most of the childs friends go to preschool. Moreover, the preschool of choice usually is the one nearest to their residence. For city parents, preschools tend to be near their place of work where it is easily accessible.
In terms of the schedule of sessions, there is a difference in the choices made by parents who both work outside of the house, as compared to parents with one partner who remains at home. Working parents favor a full week schedule, because of the convenience and the assurance that they can work throughout the week. On the other hand, parents who stay at home find a three-day-per-week schedule sufficient for their preschool age children (David, Davies, Edwards, Reay, Stabding 1997). They feel that three days are enough for their child, for such a schedule allows them more time to spend with their child. It would make sense that stay-at-home parents want a shorter class schedule than working parents, since they are available and can care for their child.
In another study, parental choice of preschools was analyzed using market conditions of preschool programs. It is argued that when parents have the ability to choose a school for their child, they want high-quality education, and schools would be forced to develop strong and competitive programs to entice parents to enroll their child (Cryer Burchinal, 1997). Under these conditions, parents see schooling as an investment that will benefit their child thus, the choice is often influenced by how good the school is in terms of facilities, curriculum, and academic standards (Maddaus, 1990). In this precept, preschools that fail to recruit and increase enrolment would lose funding and eventually close operation. Thus, parental choice contributes to market competition, resulting in improvement of preschool programs.
Quality of Preschools
Parental choice regarding selection of elementary and high schools has been the focus of previous research because of the importance placed on academic performance and achievement (Maddaus, 1990). However, compulsory education leaves parents limited choices in the sense that schools are regulated by the government, and course offerings and standards are more or less at par. Parental choice relates to teacher qualification, school excellence, and facilities but is less relevant for curriculum (Gorard, 1997).
Preschool is not compulsory. However, based on a survey of preschool enrolment in recent years, an ever increasing number of three- and four-year old children are being enrolled in preschool programs. Although the programs are publicly funded, it is assumed that the same trend is true for privately run preschools. Since preschool is not a prerequisite for kindergarten, it is evident that parental choice is a major factor for deciding in which preschool to enroll their children (Maddaus, 1990). Parents have their own expectations of what preschool should be this may invariably influence the kind of programs that preschools offer. Contrastingly, existing preschool programs may influence parental expectations.
Very little research has been done on parental choice of preschools. Previous findings stressed the factors that influence parents choices, but none focused on preschool curricula (Reay Lucey, 2000). It would appear that preschool curricula are the least of the concerns of parents when they consider schools for their young child (Maddaus, 1990). It is also apparent that parents choose schools without fully understanding the kind of program in which their child will be enrolling. However, when parents feel discontent, and when preschools do not live up to their expectations, parents are quick to scrutinize the schools program and complain. In this respect, knowing and understanding the preschool curriculum would lead to better choices (Hausman Goldring, 2000).
In reality, parents do care about their childs education. The choice for a preschool may be utilitarian at best, but most parents do their best to choose a preschool program beneficial to their child, especially in terms of kindergarten preparation. Studies found that parents would like a preschool to be accessible and to have quality facilities among other required preschool components.
Preschool Curriculums
Not many parents include the preschool curriculum as a deciding factor when they look for preschools for their children at best, they only consider it when they have already enrolled their children in a certain school. There are a number of preschools, each with its own program and curriculum, and parents are always welcome to ask about the programs and the classroom treatment of their children (Kirk Anicich, 1996). Most preschools invite parents to observe classes so they can acquire an understanding of the learning environment in the school, but most parents who observe classes do not focus on the curriculum. They pay more attention to how good and kind the teacher is, how excellent the facilities are, and whether their child will be given the attention he or she needs during classes (Stipek Seal, 2001).
In another survey, it was found that parents often asked how soon their child would be able to read and inquired about the achievement rates of the students in terms of reading and mastery of academic skills. Parents also heavily stressed that they would want their child to learn how to solve problems and to learn about geography and culture (Saracho, 2002). This may indicate that parents often lean towards academic-based curriculums or traditional schools because of the emphasis placed on improving academic skills and performance.
Parents who were asked whether they considered the curriculum of the preschool when enrolling their child reported that they did not give a great deal of consideration to curriculum instead, they relied on the recommendations of friends and the popularity of the school among their circle of friends (Moore Derman-Sparks, 2003). Moreover, parents generally do not see play-based curriculum as an effective curriculum program. In fact, they argued that play can be incorporated in preschools as recreation or as an ice breaker during the days activities they doubted whether their child would learn anything while playing (Morrow Rand, 1991).
On the other hand, a small number of surveyed parents, who had already enrolled their children in a play-based preschool program, were receptive and positive about play-based curricula (Levin, 2000). They reported that they were aware that play is an important part of a childs life, especially if children can learn during play. However, this sampled group of parents is diminutive in number only a handful of parents had positive attitudes towards the play-based curriculum.
Generally, parents know very little about preschool curriculums. They enroll their child in a particular program with the expectation that their child will be taught the basic skills needed for kindergarten (Lubeck, 1998). When parents expectations are not met, or when they perceive the program negatively, they question the curriculum, asserting they were not aware of the curriculum initially. Parents who disagree with, or feel strongly about, the curriculum may eventually pull their child from the school, finding a preschool that does meet their expectations.
Implications of Previous Research
There are a number of preschool programs available to parents, each with its own set of philosophies and objectives among the more popular are Montessori, High Scope, Reggio Emilia, Waldorf, play-based, and academic-based. The more specialized preschool programs adopt either of the mentioned preschool curricula, but most state-funded programs are said to adopt a combination of play-based and academic-based curricula.
Parents seem to favor academic-based programs out of concern for the future academic performance of their children. The preschool program selections parents make for their children are influenced by a number of factors knowledge and understanding of the different preschool curricula are not among those factors. Parents frequently prioritize choices in terms of convenience to the parents, not in terms of learning benefits to their children.
Educators advocate the use of developmentally appropriate practices for preschool education however, these practices are rarely implemented. Schools, especially state-funded institutions, adhere to the academic or worksheet curricula, influenced by the importance of academic achievement, even in kindergarten. Moreover, developmentally appropriate practices are prescribed, but are not actually provided to children because of the effort and preparation required by teachers who are often ill equipped for the task.
Play-based curricula have created negative perceptions in parents because of their inability to understand the core principles upon which a play-based curriculum is based. Some parents are unenthusiastic about the concept of play, since it appears not to lead to any viable learning. Parents and, possibly, some teachers fail to recognize the benefits of play, particularly in young children, because of these misperceptions.
Summary of Chapter 2
As previous research has demonstrated, parental choice of preschool typically does not consider the type of curriculum of the preschool program or its impact on the learning experience of the child. Play-based curricula have largely been misunderstood it is presumed that parents do not understand the play-based curriculum concept and, therefore, are not maximizing the learning potential of their child by supporting the curriculum activities. This research study endeavors to know and understand parents attitudes toward the play-based curricula to determine whether they feel positively or negatively about it.
Chapter 3 Methodology
This chapter provides a layout of the theoretical framework, research method, design and data collection, and analysis of the proposed research study. The main goals of this chapter are to demonstrate that the study will be conducted using effective and ethical methods, and to provide information that can assist future researchers in replicating this study.
Theoretical Framework
Parental choices of preschools often follow a decision-making process that weighs the advantages and disadvantages of a certain action it would follow that the decisions parents make are based on their assumptions and beliefs about the benefits of preschool programs. In drawing from a critical perspective, I believe that preconceived notions can often create situations where certain ways of knowing privilege some over others. From a critical theoretical perspective, no universal truth or set of laws or principles can be applied to everyone. Rather, knowledge is political and is used in ways that privilege some while simultaneously marginalizing others (Ryan Grieshabler, 2004).
This can now be examined at a theoretical context. Critical approaches examine social conditions and uncover oppressive power arrangements. The theories found in this paradigm critique the known structure of social arrangement and deny the existence of any true enduring one. Critical researchers suggest, instead, that a certain group has an explicit political agenda, which conflicts with other groups interests. No aspect of life is interest free, even science. Researchers main job often consists of identifying existing contradictions in order to help people be aware of what is really going on and to create new forms of language that will enable predominant ideology to be exposed and for competing ideologies to be heard (Littlejohn, 2000). The critical researcher embraces themes including social struggles, a critique of society, and envisions new possibilities (Creswell, 2007).
Theories complementing this concept usually critique the structure of social arrangement and deny the existence of any true enduring one. Instead, they suggest that a certain group has an explicit political agenda, which struggles with culture and other groups interests. Their main job often consists of identifying existing contradictions, in order to help people be aware of actual circumstances, and to create new forms of language that will enable predominant ideology to be exposed and for competing ideologies to be heard. (Littlejohn, 2000). I critiqued the known structure of the social and political arrangement in the sphere of early childhood education to better understand parents beliefs of a play-based early childhood curriculum and its benefits to the educational growth of young children.
The importance of preschool education to later academic achievement has been demonstrated in various studies in which these programs have been supported and encouraged by government agencies. A benefit to the parents with busy lives is that preschool enables them to work without having to worry about the welfare of their children. However, preschool has also become a source of social pressure for parents and children alike. Preschools have become competitive, often at the expense of the learning and fun that children are supposed to experience.
Parents, who ultimately choose the kind of preschool program their child receives, are susceptible to the influence of a number of factors. Parents often base their decisions on their personal beliefs and needs, such as their work schedule, location of the preschool, fees, admission processes, safety, word of mouth, previous experience and others (Reay Lucey, 2000). With the reality of the failing academic performance of the nations students, parents often feel the pressure to place their children in preschool programs that emphasize academic skills, such as reading, writing, and arithmetic. There are also preschools that adopt a more rigorous approach to instruction and introduce concepts that are beyond the developmental stage of young children with the goal of preparing children for kindergarten. Most educators advocate that preschools should follow developmentally appropriate practices, and that they should be play-based since children learn more when they are having fun and experiencing the activities concretely (McCune Zanes, 2001). Determining whether parents assess the different learning models that preschools adopt is difficult, since little research exists on the reason for parental choices or on their understanding of the preschool learning curricula.
The social constructivist theory is the force that determines this study. It claims that individuals perceptions of the reality around them shape their thoughts and behavior (Berger Luckman, 1966) and that the construction of meaning is a process forged in the crucible of everyday interactionmeanings are negotiated, exchanged, and modified through everyday interactions with others (Rosenholtz, 1989, p. 3). It also says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiencing and reflecting upon those experiences.
It can be gathered that in Vgotskys social constructivist theory, parents form an understanding when it comes to identifying the fit academic environment for their child based on their expectations. This explains why some parents prefer schools with certain specializations, and, at the same time, schools package themselves according to a strategic educational model that can appeal to the expectations of the parents. Hence, it can be seen that some schools may focus more on art, or the sciences parents respond to such packaging according to what they believe is best for their child in terms of their next steps of development.
Such perception is based on the belief that since learning is a continuous process, the next stages are crucial, and it is through the social exposure of learning, as guided by adults, that young students are able develop to fit certain molds. Often, when we encounter something new, we have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experiences, perhaps, changing what we believe or discarding the new information as irrelevant. In any case, we are active creators of our own knowledge. In this study, I will ask questions in a relaxed, engaging atmosphere. I will explore and assess the information I gather from the study to identify the main aspects or misconceptions surrounding a play-based early childhood curriculum. Thus, parents who have already enrolled their child in a play-based preschool are expected to have acted rationally and to have perceived their choice as the most advantageous. In this respect, this study hopes to understand parents beliefs and attitudes towards a play-based early childhood curriculum.
Therefore, when investigating the final research question What are the beliefs of these five parents and what are their attitudes towards an early childhood play-based curriculum I identified the following areas as the providers of resources in this research
Figure 1 Framework
The above representational framework presents the relationship of parents beliefs, attitudes, and perception of play-based curriculum to their understanding of the play-based curriculum and demonstrates how it influences their choices regarding preschool programs for their child. The degree to which parents understand the curriculum of their children would also directly influence parental involvement in and support for the learning activities of their childs preschool.
Research Method
According to Bryman (2004), qualitative research provides a research strategy that usually emphasizes the words with which individuals interpret actions and the social world, and it may be an appropriate method to be employed in social research. Since the present study intends to explore and understand the beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions of parents, the qualitative method is the most appropriate.
Qualitative methods have been gaining support and wider application in different fields within the social sciences, indicating the usefulness of the kind of data and knowledge that this method offers (Polit Beck, 2004). Qualitative methods rely on the participants experience of the variable under study, whether it is an event, a psychological process, or a social phenomenon. The qualitative researcher investigates the issue or phenomenon with the assumption that the best source of information is the participant, and the best kinds of data are those having been expressed and clarified by the participant (Patton, 2002). Creswell (2007) stated that the goal in qualitative research is to achieve understanding, which he described as a deep knowledge of some social setting or phenomenon (p.34).
The data gathered using the qualitative method are far richer and more robust and real in the sense that it came from the personal viewpoint, understanding, and experience of the participants (Denzin Lincoln, 2005). Quantitative methods are limited because the data are gathered and analyzed using a predetermined scale and a set of hypotheses, which may or may not be true to the context of the study (Polit Beck, 2004). Quantitative methods also rely on statistical analysis of the data, which takes out the human factor of the study values and standards for determining significance cannot aptly describe an experience such as job satisfaction (Johnson Christensen, 2004).
Acknowledging multiple realities in qualitative case studies, as is now commonly done, involves discerning the various perspectives of the researcher, the caseparticipant, and others, which may or may not converge (Yin, 2003). As an interpretive, inductive form of research, case studies explore the details and meanings of experience and do not usually attempt to test a priori hypotheses. Instead, the researcher attempts to identify important patterns and themes in the data. The richness of case studies is related to the amount of detail and contextualization that is possible when only one or a small number of focal cases and issues are analyzed (Baxter Jack, 2008). This is different from phenomenology, which is a research method designed for obtaining a description of an experience as it is lived in order to understand the meaning of that experience for those who have it (Denzin Lincoln, 2005). The case study method investigates a contemporary phenomenon over time to provide an in-depth description of essential dimensions and processes of the phenomenon (Yin, 2003).
Based on the goals of this study, the employment of the qualitative methodology and the case study design are appropriate. Case study research involves the study of an issue explored through one or more cases within a bounded system (i.e., a setting, a context). The bounded system is investigated over-time through detailed, comprehensive data collection involving multiple sources of information (e.g., observations, interviews, audio taped material, and artifacts). A case description is then provided along with case-based themes. In the present study, parents whose children attend commercial school branch 1 (psydonyme) will be the identified case for this study.
This study will use the narrative in-depth interview as a qualitative data collection method, which can elicit far richer information than a survey. Further, interviews offer the researcher a means to clarify responses and validate participant responses. Cohen et al. (2000) posited that individual behaviors can only be understood by understanding individuals interpretations of the world around them. Therefore, meaningful social action needs to be interpreted from the point of view of the actors or the people who are in that particular situation. It can be said that parents who have already enrolled their child in a play-based preschool would naturally feel more strongly about it than parents who have not sent their child to a play-based preschool (Bryman, 2004).
Research Design
This qualitative case study will be conducted to help answer the question What are these five parents beliefs and attitudes towards an early childhood play-based curriculum
Sub Questions
Additional questions to help answer the larger question include
What are perceptions of play
What are parents beliefs regarding developmentally appropriate practices
What are parents perceptions of early learning
This qualitative case study examines preschool parents beliefs and attitudes using a narrative inquiry data-collection strategy in order to showcase the experiences and perceptions of parents towards play-based curricula in early childhood programs. Case study and narrative inquiry seek to understand the particular details in a historically and socially bounded context (Clandinin Connelly, 2000).
Clandinin and Connellys (2000) thinking originated with Deweys concept of experience. Dewey expanded the experience to be continuous and to lead to personal and social (interaction), past, present, and future (continuity), combined with the notion of place (situation), which creates a metaphorical three-dimensional narrative inquiry space, with temporarily along one dimension, the personal and the social along a second dimension, and place along a third (Clandinin Connelly, 2000, p.50).
Various boundaries must be considered when implementing narrative inquiry thinking. Deweys two criteria of experience continuity and interaction provide a theoretical frame for identifying tension at the boundaries. Tensions pertaining to continuity that were brought up by the experience describe are temporality, people, action, and certainty (Clandinin Connelly 2000 p. 21). This temporality addresses how the participants look at a specific event in time, which has a past, present, and future implication. The second tension to consider is the participants progression of change. Next, the participants actions must be analyzed using narrative interpretation before any meaning can be present. However, the concept of certainty concerning the interpretation of the participants actions should be tentatively questioned with further analysis needed and with no absolute truth guaranteed. Another key factor to consider is the context, in relation to events, location, and interaction with other people. All of these boundaries interconnect, and narrative inquiry looks to each for answers to explain the participants story (Clandinin Connelly, 2000).
Clandinin and Connellys (2000) three-dimensional space questions work towards defining the final research question How do parents understand a play-based early childhood curriculum
Table 1 Three Dimensional Space Changes
DimensionQuestionExplanation of IntentBackwardHow do parents personal experiences in school contribute to their current beliefs of how children learnTo understand how parents past experiences have formed their perceptions of how children learn and develop. This question provides a space to explore past boundaries, as suggested by Clandinin and Connelly (2000). It will provide participants an opportunity to explore their own experiences as it increases their understanding of how children learn.ForwardWhat are parents future goals for their childrenTo determine how parents future educational goals for their children influence their selection of an early childhood program in which their young children participate. InwardIn what ways do parents think about the implications of early learningTo gain an understanding of how parents perceive early learning. In what ways do they understand that infants and young children learn and how they learn OutwardWhat are the outside factors that influence how parents understand how children learnTo assist me in understanding how parents use outside information in their decision-making process. Do current policies, such as standards and standardized testing, affect their decision Do readings or research play into their decision
Choosing case study and narrative inquiry allows for the researcher to experience a small bounded setting, incorporating how parents view the benefits of play. This methodology allows for social and political phenomena to appear. When people are willing to share their unique stories, feelings, and experiences, the case study approach provides first-hand data.
The researcher plans to report personal experiences chronologically or thematically in a particular setting to offer an analysis or to make sense of what the participants have expressed (Yin, 1994). The process of the researcher involves restorying an individuals story in a logical, meaningful, and organized way. First, transcriptions of the interviews conducted must occur. Next, it is essential to analyze the data to identify key elements and to systematically code the transcriptions to uncover the themes and complexities of each story. Restorying the data into logical sequences adds depth to the insight and understanding of the persons experiences, allowing others to see, hear, and understand a persons narrative.
The purpose for using the narrative case study is that it allows the researcher to witness and report a descriptive setting in order to share experiences. Personal and social growth can be apparent when asking for a participant to consider a situation in a past, present, and future context. Having initial and post-interviews allows a researcher to record any changes in view point, interpretations, confusion, or evaluation in a specific situation (Yin, 1994). Dewey (1938) spoke of continuity and interaction of experiences and the importance of focusing more on the individual versus the collective whole. He promoted the consideration of actual life-experiences and asking for insightful, meaningful lessons.
Nevertheless, case study and narrative inquiry have downfalls. Case studies are criticized for being soft research and not possessing generalizability (Yin, 1994) however, there are always ways to challenge that assumption. For instance, case studies examine individual people who possess differences and unique characteristics. Therefore, generalization most likely does not occur and is not important. The audience and readers should realize that people and environments are different therefore, generalizability is not sought. Rather, the benefit of using narrative inquiry is to prove the benefits of showcasing individuals experiences. An additional criticism of case study methodologies is that the researcher can become close to the participants, which can be detrimental to the research if not handled properly (Clandinin Connelly, 2000). Some also argue that this closeness is a methodological strength, because the same closeness allows the researcher to acquire more in-depth information, and it may make it easier for the participant to share personal experiences. A researcher must be able to stay objective, even when the two parties become familiar with one another. Also, there is always the risk to the participant when the stories, interviews, and writings must be analyzed by the researcher (Yin, 1994) Unintentional memory and perception can vary from time-to-time, setting-to-setting, and person-to-person. Exaggerations and understatements must be watched for and taken into consideration (Clandinin Connelly, 2000).
The researcher will keep these considerations in mind before beginning this case study however, I feel strongly that case study is the best way to acquire personal insight into how the parents of young children perceive play. Both oral and written data collection will be used and analyzed from a narrative inquiry model. Asking any individual to recall a situation can be short of the absolute truth, since perception, and memory can be faulty (Clandinin Connelly, 2000). Consequently, this limitation of the data will be considered when interpreting the findings.
I resorted to qualitative research, oriented towards identifying and describing human experiences in various subjects, with the help of interviews. In this process, it is important to keep in mind the possibility of becoming influenced by the participants environment, and interpretation of the data could be subject to the biases and personal opinions of the researcher (Myers, 2002). Frequently, when conducting qualitative research, researchers must adapt to the participants environment to elicit the best from them. Accordingly, I will conduct interviews in natural settings, including the Goddard School premises and in common public places. Interpretation will identify possible biases in the views of some of the participants and duly discard them. Further, I will analyze recurring phrases, patterns, or statements from the participants in order to develop a theoretical basis to reach my conclusion.
Case Study
This study adopts the case study design with the view that individual cases provide more in-depth information. Case studies focus on the individual, hisher experiences, and immediate reality, which is needed to derive meaning and understanding of the issue or concept under examination. Moreover, it provides real examples from real people who are unencumbered by the use of predetermined measures or surveys, and whose responses will only result in numbers and statistics (Bogdan Biklen, 2007). In this study, individuals will be interviewed and asked to share their stories based on open-ended questions that correspond to the over-arching research questions. In doing so, the individuals experiences and beliefs will be discussed in order to arrive at a better understanding of the research topic, which regards parental perceptions and understanding of a play-based curriculum. It is expected that other factors such as race, religion, and socioeconomic status would influence the experiences and thoughts of parents. Thus, the parents selected for the study will come from different backgrounds.
The case study design has been criticized for its narrow nature it focuses only on a small number of cases. Therefore, generalizations are difficult to derive and apply since the results are often true only for the cases that the study has used. However, in this research, the objective is to understand parents own concept of a play-based curriculum and does not intend to establish any theory or disprove any hypothesis but, rather, to explore and gain new understanding of a given phenomena.
While case study is defined as an empirical inquiry between real-life context and contemporary phenomenon, especially when the relationship between the two is ambiguous (Yin, 2003), it will play a pivotal role in this research by highlighting the detailed analysis of the events, human condition, or social relationships.
However, the use of the case study for this research aligns more with Creswells (2002) view that the case study serves as the gateway of an inquiry that provides profound understanding of the system where a problem or issue is situated. The system eventually will become the case, because, within the system, the researcher chooses an event, activity, or any form of contemporary phenomenon that does not have clear boundaries within the real-life context, making it the subject of the case.
Though, some researchers offer words of caution regarding the difficulty associated with case study method (Stake, 2005), the sense of gravity generated by the case study used in this research project rose above all dilemmas and formed the core of this investigation.
Research Setting
The study will be conducted in a local private preschool in Northeast Ohio that has long used the play-based curriculum and adheres to the principles and requirements of a quality play-based preschool. I chose The Goddard School commercial school branch 1 as my primary location for interviews for the following reasons firstly, this is the school where the participants children are currently enrolled secondly, Goddard utilizes a play-based curriculum and, finally, the school has strong parental involvement.
The curriculum theory at the Goddard School is based on the works of Jean Piaget. Piagets theory is premised on the idea that the developing child builds cognitive structures for understanding and responding to experiences within hisher environment. Like Piaget, Goddard believes that play behavior is a vehicle of cognitive stimulation. Childrens development takes place in a specific sequence, regardless of a childs race, intelligence, or culture. The assumption made is that we can enhance or delay development, but we cannot change its basic order. Children learn to be comfortable in the world around them. This is well known. Therefore, the parents lack of support for the play-based curriculum is often puzzling.
Participants
The respondents of this study will be parents who have enrolled their child in a Goddard School, as the goal of the study is to explore parents perceptions of a play-based curriculum. Thirty parents will be invited to participate in the research study through an invitation letter, and the parents that reply and give consent will be contacted for personal interviews. I will communicate and work with the schools teachers and administrators regarding the details of the research plan and the interview protocol. I will make initial contact with the school owner (gatekeeper). I will provide a short description of my study to be placed in his monthly e-newsletter, which is distributed at the end of February to all parents. Parents will be asked to contact me rather than gatekeeper if they are interested via email at HYPERLINK mailtokturkkent.edu kturkkent.edu. Parents will be asked to complete a short demographic survey if they are interested in participating (Appendix A). This survey will include
A brief ethnic description
Highest education degree obtained
How long their child has been enrolled at that school
Number of children they have in total and the number enrolled at that school.
If more than five parents respond, I will organize those parents into clusters to help decide which to use. Those I select will be representational of the larger community. I plan to interview five parents conducting three interviews a Life History interview , a Current Context interview that includes a summary of their present situation, and a Follow up interview..
These preliminary questions are pre-emptive of the questions that will be found in the interview. Parents need to be interviewed according to this platform to ensure a variation of perceptions in the case study. Since it is expected that factors such as race, religion, and socioeconomic status would influence the experiences and thoughts of parents, those selected for the study will come from different backgrounds. The purpose of these questions is to measure the depth of contribution shared by the parents when questioned on their views of the subject. The interviews for the study itself will be more focused, providing the opportunity for parents to explain their perspectives in greater depth. Therefore, selection will not be random, identifying this as qualitative study.
From the original respondents to the invitation, and the number of parents involved in the preliminary interview, the final number of participants will be narrowed down to five. These final five parents will create the focus group to be used as a platform for this case study. It should be noted that case study research and narrative interviews do not need to have a large sample size, since the focus is upon gaining an in-depth understanding of the parents perceptions. Race, gender, socio-economic status, and religion will not be controlled in this study, but will be used to provide demographic information about the respondents.
Data Collection
Following the qualitative method, I will conduct one-on-one interviews with the parent participants in a relaxed, engaging atmosphere and will use a predetermined interview protocol in which questions, based on the research questions, will be asked of the parents. The questions will be open-ended, and the participants will be asked to share their responses and clarifications to correct any misperceptions. If parents have difficulty sharing their thoughts and experiences, additional questions will be asked to assist participants in elaborating on their answers to the previous questions. The interviews will not be timed, and the participant can share freely with minimal interruption from the interviewer. The interview will be recorded by audio tape, but permission from the parents will be sought before initiating the interview. If parents decline the taping of the interview, note taking will be used, but will be done discreetly. Interviews can be used to understand an individuals perspective (Fontana Frey, 1994). They allow investigation and prompting of matters which cannot be observed (Wellington, 2000). Interviews also allow reflection on the complexity of social behavior and attempt to explain the causes (Silverman, 2001).
Following the suggestions of Merriam (1988), I will use interviews as data collection techniques in order to understand the cases in their totality. I will also strive to create a holistic depiction of each case and, accordingly, utilize interviews, participant observation, and direct observation to augment my research. To maximize the usefulness of the data, I will follow standard protocols associated with each of these methods.
For example, I will be mindful that an interview is a focused face-to-face meeting between two parties, namely, the interviewer and the interviewee (Treece Treece Jr., 1977), and the difference between an interview and a simple list of open-ended questions is that the former may be considered as an ordinary dialogue between two people.
I will not adhere to a rigid set of questions, but, rather, use a broad-based guideline to gather information on issues relevant to my research. Through this process, even dialogue can supply a wealth of information if the discussion can be extended to several topics relate to the main focus of the study. I will utilize a semi-structured interview approach, in which the researcher asks additional questions, as necessary, for more extensive coverage of the topic. This method enables the researcher to gather more in-depth information (Treece Treece Jr., 1977).
Timeline
Data collection for this study will require approximately four months, March through June 2010, to allow for the summer break of schools (See Table 1 Timeline). I will communicate and work with the schools teachers and administrators regarding the details of the research plan and the interview protocol. I will make initial contact with the school owner (gatekeeper). I will provide a short description of my study to be placed in his monthly e-newsletter to parents. If they are interested, parents will be asked to contact me rather than the gatekeeper via email at HYPERLINK mailtokturkkent.edukturkkent.edu. Parents will be asked to complete a short demographic survey if they are interested in participating (Appendix A). This survey will include a brief ethnic description, education, how long their child has been enrolled at that school, number of children they have in total and the number enrolled at that school. If more than five parents respond, I will place them into clusters to help decide. My selection will be representational of the larger community. I plan to interview five parents, conducting three interviews a Life History Interview , a Current Context interview to include their current situation, and a Follow-up interview (Appendix A).. The Follow-up interview will be based on my observations during parent teacher conferences, parent meetings etc. April to August 2010 will be devoted to the writing of the findings, discussion, and recommendation part of the study. At the end of the interviews, I plan to start the analysis of the data and to make the necessary interpretation of the findings. This time will be devoted to refining the writing of the findings, discussion, and recommendation part of the study, as well as the proofreading and editing of the paper.
Proofing
Data Analysis
The gathered data will be analyzed using the qualitative method, which is an inductive approach. This approach starts with a rough definition of research questions, data collection, coding, saturating categories, and exploring relationships between categories (Bryman, 2004). The sub-processes involved in this data analysis method are data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing (Huberman Miles, 1998). After collection, the data has to be reduced to its component parts in order to make complicated things understandable (Bernard 1988 cited in Huberman Miles, 1998). In this stage, data are coded and summarized into themes (Wellington, 2000). Data display allows the researcher to conceptualize the material as organized and assembled data. The third process is conclusion drawing, which involves interpreting and giving meaning to data (Wellington, 2000). These processes will provide a useful starting point for data analysis in this investigation, but Wellington (2000) argues that analyzing qualitative data is messier and more complicated than these three processes would suggest. He posits that data analysis has to involve immersing oneself in the data, reflecting upon it, taking it apart, synthesizing it, relating and locating the data, and presenting the data. These strategies will be used in data analysis of this research.
All the interviews will be recorded by MP3 recorder and transcribed in detail. In order to manage such a large amount of qualitative data, every transcription from two phases of interviews will be printed. Each transcription will be read and re-read, carefully, to understand a sense of the holism of the interview before identifying the appropriate codes for the data. Identifying appropriate codes and categorizing the data into themes are important steps in the data analysis. Kerlinger (1970) defines coding as the translation of question responses and respondent information to specific categories for the purpose of analysis (Cited in Cohen et al., 2000 283). After coding, the researcher has to examine and compare the data within the categories and compare the data across categories in order to build an integrated explanation (Rubin Rubin, 1995). The processes of analysis for this study will be transcribing interviews, reading transcription, analyzing data and finding codes, categorizing and translating data, determining themes, examining and comparing the data, and building a logical chain of findings. The discussion of the research findings will be based on the individual narratives of the respondents, wherein the objective is to provide as many divergent and convergent ideas on a specified issue or context.
Trustworthiness and Validity
Validity can be defined as the correctness or credibility of a description conclusion, explanation, interpretation (Maxwell, 2005). Maxwell (2005) also states that validity does not only mean to discuss terms, like triangulation and member checking, but, also, to rule out specific plausible alternatives and threats to your interpretation and explanation. These areas include researcher bias and reactivity. Furthermore, validity tests can be performed by the researcher to include intensive, long-term involvement, rich data, respondent validation, intervention, discrepant evidence and negative cases, triangulation, quasi-statistics, and comparison (Maxwell, 2005). The researcher has considered the following areas of concern.
Limitations
The limitations of the study include the difficulty of deriving generalizations from the research findings, because, with this particular case study design, findings will only be true for the given research setting and participant. Also, the possible effects of demographic factors, such as race, religion, and socioeconomic status, might affect the responses of the participants when those variables are not taken into consideration. Moreover, responses have to be taken at face value, as true and reflective of the experiences and thoughts of the participants.
Summary of Chapter 3
This chapter presents the theoretical framework in which the study will be conducted the research method and design is also presented and discussed in detail to justify the use of such methods and design. The chapter also provides the description of the research setting, the research sample, the data gathering procedure, data analysis, the timeline, and validity and reliability concerns, as well as the anticipated limitations of the study.
Appendix A
This initial survey will be included in the schools February E news letter to be distributed to all parents of the school.
Over view
With the reality of the failing academic performance of the nations students, parents often feel the pressure to place their children in preschool programs that emphasize academic skills, such as reading, writing, and arithmetic.
Early childhood researchers have reported that young children learn best through activities that support the development of the whole child. Due to recent concern with accountability, competition, and testing, an over-emphasis has been placed on academics including our youngest learners. In response to these concerns, some early childhood programs have turned their focus to teaching academic skills.. These factors have led to narrowly-defined curricula, which deny young children valuable life experiences. Parents who want their child to be prepared academically may have concerns regarding preschools that adopt the play-based curriculum. I am conducting a study of the parents perceptions of play-based early childhood curriculum the information may be useful to teachers and administrators when planning strategies for implementing successful preschool education. This study will consist of three interview to be completed during the months March-June 2010.
If you are interested in participating in this study, please complete this short demographic survey and submit it to me at HYPERLINK mailtokturkkent.edu kturkkent.edu .
Thank you for your time and consideration. I will be contacting interested parents within the next few weeks to schedule interview appointments.
Survey
Please provide
A brief ethnic description
Highest education degree obtained
How long your child has been enrolled at that school
Number of children you have in total and the number enrolled at that school.
Appendix B Narrative In-depth Interview Protocol
Life History Interview questions
Backward
Did you go to preschool when you were your childs age
What kind of preschool did you attend
What was your most memorable experience in your own preschool Why
Do you think you would want to have your child experience the same preschool you did Why
Do you think your preschool helped you prepare for formal schooling Why
If you did not attend preschool. At what age did you begin school What is your earliest memory of school
Forward
To what school do you plan to send your child for kindergarten and primary school Why
What do you think are the most important skills that your child should learn as heshe grows up Why
What do you expect in terms of your childs academic performance in the future Why
What is your dream for your child Why
Context Interview Questions- Situated in Place include
Inward
Why have you enrolled your child in this school
What are your thoughts about preschool education
How did you arrive at this decision What books, articles, did you read To whom did you talk Neighbors, Pediatrician Teachers Etc
Do you feel that this preschool is the best school for your child Why
Do you believe in the idea that young children learn through play Why
Do you think there are other ways of learning that your child can benefit from Please elaborate.
What do you think are the best ways for a preschooler to learn or prepare for kindergarten and primary school
Outward
What factors influenced your decision to enroll your child in this school
Among the factors you mentioned, which was the most influential Why
Are you aware of the state of the nations educational policies on standardized testing How do you feel about this
Have you read or researched about preschools before you decided on sending your child to preschool What did you read
Do you think preschool is important as preparation for kindergarten Why Where did you get your information
Are you aware of the early childhood national agenda that play is the best for childrens programs
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