Pedagogy

This applied dissertation was submitted by Adel Abdalla under the direction of the persons listed below. It was submitted to the Fischler School of Education and Human Services and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education at Nova Southeastern University.

This applied dissertation is designed to provide teachers an intervention program for elementary students to help them improve their academic performance in Mathematics. The After-School Mathematics Tutorial Program is evaluated in the context of an elementary school in South Florida in order to measure it effects on male and female students, in terms of academic achievement. A mixed methods research design will be implemented to holistically evaluate the impact of this tutorial program on the students. The research will follow the Sunshine State Standards for Mathematics to determine academic achievement.

Statement of the Problem
The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2002 has placed tough responsibilities on the public school system to guarantee that all children succeed. Taking into consideration this expectation and requirements, it is obvious that closing the achievement gap at all grade levels and between male and female students is essential. Research has shown that mathematics academic achievement has posed a great problem for female students compared to male students, and for the lowest 25 of students as a whole at the identified elementary school in south Florida.

The After-School Mathematics Tutorial Program (ASMT) program needs to ensure that the academic needs of both males and females in fourth grade in a south Florida elementary school are being adequately addressed. Research studies have made it very clear that the differences in achievement of males and females in mathematics is a problem that needs to be investigated in order to understand the genders effect on the academic mathematics achievement. It is also a challenging concern for our society to study, investigate, document, and address the gender mathematics differences in early ages of our students. Therefore, this applied dissertation comes at the opportune time, in relation to program credibility and funding opportunities.

Background and Significance of the Problem
The primary focus of this applied dissertation is to evaluate the practices implemented in the context of an After-School Mathematics Tutorial Program (ASMT) at work in an elementary school setting. Fennema (2000) pointed out that during the last three decades, the need to continue studying and researching about gender and mathematics must continue in order to deepen ones understanding of what and how this discourse can be achieved. An understanding of gender and mathematics will improve by research and engaging the whole community in this discourse.

Research studies on the differences between male and female students achievement in mathematics began almost 60 years ago. It is important to study the differences in gender achievement in mathematics if the gap between genders in mathematics continues to exist. Newsweek magazine, December 15, 1980, (as cited in Hyde, Fennema, Ryan, Frost,  Hopp, 1990) carried the headline Do Males Have a Math Gene They subsequently replied to the affirmative. However, some researchers and investigators claimed that the environmental factors could affect the students achievement, but not the biological factors (Hyde et al., 1990).

The ASMT is designed to service students between the ages of nine and 10. Participants were chosen based on the needs as determined by one or more of the following criteria (a) a group of 14 female students who scored a level 1 or 2 on the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT) for mathematics administered in 2006 (b) a mixed group of 20 male and female students who scored a level 1 or 2 math FCAT administered in 2006 (c) a group of 17 male students who scored a level 1 or 2 on math FCAT administered in 2006. It was calculated that 41 students enrolled in this program. The programs measurable objectives include (a) providing tutoring and enrichment to assist 70 or more of its participants in obtaining and maintaining a level 3 in mathematics, and (b) 70 of the participants will increase one level or more in mathematics by the end of the program. The three groups will compete to get the best results.

This elementary school will be referred to as an elementary school in a south Florida school district. The students in this school came from middle class socioeconomic background. The population of this school for the 20052006 academic session was 650 students.

In accordance with the state of Floridas A Plan, the elementary school being studied earned a grade of D for the 2001 and 2003 school years a grade of C for the 2002, 2004, and 2005 school years and a grade of B for 2006 school year. In the 2006 school year, in the area of reading, 54 of the students who participated in the FCAT were at or above grade level, 59 made a years worth of progress, and 66 of struggling students made one years growth.

In the area of mathematics, 48 of all the students who participated in the FCAT were meeting high standards in math, and 68 were making learning gains in math. In the area of writing, 85 of all students were meeting high standards. The 2005-2006 Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) indicted that the lowest 25  students need improvement in mathematics (Florida Department of Education, 2006). It is clear that ASMT program should play an important part to improve the mathematics academic performance of the lowest 25  students.

The student population in the elementary school being studied is 2.5 White, 39.3 Black, 34.6 Hispanic, and 0.6 Asian. In the grades 3-5 population, 98.7 of the students are classified as economically disadvantaged, 43 are students with limited English proficiency (LEP), and 20.8 are classified as students with disabilities (SWD) (Florida Department of Education, 2006).

Deficiencies in the Problem
Over the years, the belief that boys do better in mathematics than girls has remained consistent. Brynes and Takahira (1993) declared that males have scored an average of 46 points higher than females on the Scholastic Aptitude Test mathematics exam. These findings and their implications have been recognized for years. Teachers and parents mirror this thinking. Fennema (1975) stated that for over 50 years males have achieved higher levels in mathematics than females. It seems that for males, mathematics has been a necessity, while in the mean time, for females it has not. Is it lack of self-esteem Or is it just a saying which we have inherited from the past generations
Secada (1989) asserted that females, more than males, doubt their ability in mathematics. It is repeatedly stated that female students have no self-confidence when it comes to their abilities in mathematics. Crawford, Herrmann, Holdsworth, Randall, and Robbins (1989) explained that classroom studies have shown that the belief that male students achieve better in mathematics than female students is in place by the time children enter the third grade. It is obvious that this problem started at an early stage of schooling. Lummis and Stevenson (1990) declared that by the time children enter kindergarten, parents expect girls to do better at verbal tasks and boys to do better at mathematics. This means the belief is common throughout society, schools, and among researchers.
This applied dissertation will evaluate the increased level of fourth grade students to indicate whether or not the ASMT program is effective on the three groups of student and the impact of the program. This applied dissertation is to evaluate the program. A product portion of the Control, Input, Process, Product (CIPP) Evaluation Model checklist will be used to determine the extent to which the goals of the program have been achieved. Evaluating the impact of the program and measuring the goals, the resulting data are used to make decisions about continuing or modifying the program.

Today a whole new era of tutoring has evolved. Specifically, a major question regarding tutoring to be answered in the circumstance of public education is, What is the definition of a tutoring program in a Title I school Under the NCLB Act, local districts have received more federal funding than ever before. Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act allocates a large portion of these funds for grants to improve the academic achievement of the disadvantaged. The school districts and schools have the latitude to determine how this money will be used (United States Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2003). The only mandate of the law is obtaining the same result to have all students proficient in every core subject area. It is necessary to check what the recent statistics indicate about this problem.

The U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics issued a table of comparison of fourth- through eighth-grade mathematics performance in 2003 which showed that in the United States, in fourth grade, the total average is 518 male 522 female 514, and in eighth grade the total average is 504 male507 female 502. Eventually, these numbers indicate that there is a gap in performance and achievement in mathematics between male and female students in America.
Fierros (1999) showed that in general the cross-country analyses revealed few gender differences in the 8th grade with increasing gender differences in mathematics achievement favoring males developing by the 12th grade. Some researchers declared that it is only a slight difference. The difference started to decrease roughly in eighth grade. The research has gone further claiming that females tend to do better in mathematics than their male counterparts.

Another perspective is that the math FCAT is a multiple-choice question test. Whether or not the expected difference is due to the nature of the exam itself becomes a questionable matter. Ryan (1996) indicated in a study of 6,000 fourteen-year-old students on an international mathematics test, that males scored better on algebra and geometry, but females performed better on arithmetic, though all questions were presented in a multiple-choice question format. Actually, that reason probably would be seen as a component of the problem which needs to be addressed.

The applied dissertation needs to indicate if it has an effect on the achievement of the female or the male students. Yang (2003) declared that the male students showed more positive motivational beliefs in physical science than the female students, and female students exhibited more positive motivational beliefs in reading than the male students. These various opinions about what females or males aptitudes are, and why, is evidence of an existing problem in this particular area.

Some other researchers approached the problem from different view points. Bielinski and Davison (1998) reported a sex difference by item difficulty interaction in which easy items tended to be easier for females than males, and hard items tended to be harder for females than males. Others declared the opposite. Eccles and Wegfield (1985) stated that unfortunately, by the time critics pointed out that even in the same classroom, boys and girls may have very different experiences. Eccles and Wegfields study did not explain why this happened. There was no explanation about these tendencies of the females or the males. Different findings about the problem have been studied in detail, but in a different period of time. This applied dissertation will find out about the elementary stage as it is important to know about what is happening at that early age.

Finally, there are many research studies that deny the whole problem whether in elementary or in middle schools. For instance, DeClerico (2002) claimed that there are no significant gender differences in achievement in any of the subject areas of mathematics, science, and language arts on the New Jersey Elementary School Proficiency Assessment or the New Jersey Grade Eight Achievement Assessment.

Definition of Terms
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) - Adequate Yearly Progress is the minimum level of performance that school districts and schools must achieve each year as determined under the federal No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act.

After-School Mathematics Tutorial Program (ASMT) - The key goal of Math Tutoring is to provide problem-solving experiences that build students understanding of specific math facts and skills.
Control, Input, Process, Product (CIPP) Evaluation Model  this is a checklist used to determine the extent to which the goals of the program have been achieved.

Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT) - the standardized test used in the primary and secondary public schools of Florida.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) - a public voice of mathematics education supporting teachers to ensure equitable mathematics learning of the highest quality for all students through vision, leadership, professional development and research.

Sunshine State Standards (SSS) - broad statements that describe what a child should know and be able to do at every grade level. These standards cover seven content areas social studies, science, language arts, healthphysical education, the arts, foreign language, and mathematics.

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this applied dissertation is to investigate and compare the academic achievement between genders in mathematics for a group of fourth-grade students in the identified elementary school in south Florida.  The applied dissertation will assess the participation in the ASMT program and also the results of participation in the program.

A school or school district that does not meet the states definition of adequate yearly progress (AYP) for two years (school wide or in any subgroup) is considered to be in need of improvement (United States Department of Education, 2002). The 2005-2006 (AYP) Report of the identified elementary school in south Florida indicated that Hispanic, LEP, and SWD students in the selected elementary school in south Florida need improvement in mathematics. It is very clear to the elementary school that their ASMT program plays a very important part in improving the mathematics academic performance of male and female students. This applied dissertation is to evaluate the ASMT program at the identified elementary school in south Florida.

Also, this applied dissertation is to investigate and compare between genders academic achievement in mathematics of fourth-grade students. It will assess the results of participation in the ASMT program. It will also evaluate the after-school program to determine if it is more effective with a class consisting of females only, or with a mix of males and females. Due to educational needs, there is a tremendous necessity for a program evaluation of the curriculum framework and instructional practices to determine who is benefiting more, whether it is female students, male students, or both at an elementary school in south Florida.

Chapter 2 Literature Review
Introduction
The study was created to evaluate the practices that were employed in After-School Mathematics Tutorial Programs in elementary schools. There was a significant achievement gap that led to the creation of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. The performance gaps were observed between genders that emerged 60 years ago (Hyde et al., 1990). The last three decades experienced an increasing need to study and research gender and mathematics in order to address this gap (Fennema, 2000).

There was a significant need to enrich the existing literature because the gaps between genders still exist, especially in the context of the mathematics field.  Lalley and Miller (2006) stressed that despite the efforts to meet the needs of low-achieving students, they still continued to represent a significant portion of the population in the schools, wherein four to seven percent of the students were low achievers in the mathematics subject alone.

This section would provide the scholarly groundwork for this research. The discussion would begin with an understanding of what mathematics is and the role that it played in the field of education. The chapter would also address what research studies have to say about the current trends in assessment and the professional development of teachers. Furthermore, the discussion involves current views of student performance in terms of intervention strategy effectiveness, student achievement and gender patterns. Finally, the role of tutoring would also be addressed in relation to its influence in student achievement.

What is Mathematics
Modern mathematics curriculum has changed over time. It has become a subject that was more complex than just arithmetic (Zevenbergen, Dole  Wright, 2004). More than 100 years ago, mathematics entailed computation of tasks involving large amount of numbers, long division, square roots of non-square numbers and so on. It was in the early 1960s when the new maths entered the curriculum, representing the shift in most Western countries (Zevenbergen et al., 2004). Decades passed and more forms of reforms influenced the curriculum, such as the inclusion of problem solving wherein students were expected to be more creative in their thinking. Technology played a more significant role in the curriculum in the 1980s as software programs were constantly created.
Mathematics was about being aware of recurring ideas and relationships among mathematical ideas. It was described as the study of patterns and relationships (Zevenbergen et al., 2004). When a learner receives knowledge from one area, one should be able to link it to other mathematical concepts and principles. The capability to view types of patterns and relationships was a key factor in how students learn and appreciate mathematics. Mathematics could also be considered as a way of thinking, seeing and organizing the world (Zevenbergen et al.). It was beneficial to understand mathematics as a dynamic discipline, which could be used to interpret much of the world. Through this body of knowledge, one could organize and analyze events in systematic ways.

Mathematics was also considered as a language. There was a time wherein mathematics was viewed as a disparate discipline. Presently, students were taught to learn and to understand the language of mathematics in order to appreciate it (Zevenbergen et al., 2004). Furthermore, it was also considered as a tool that could solve everyday problems. The more competent a person in this field, the more problems one could solve and, in some cases, the better one could cope in the real world (Zevenbergen et al.). It was also viewed to be a source of power. Mathematics was behind most inventions in modern history, such as the space rocket that was sent to the moon and the atomic bomb. Moreover, it was viewed as an access to professions of high status, wealth and power.
Developing nations were observed to empower the youth to be good at mathematics because they knew of the benefits that such knowledge could provide them as individuals and as citizens of the country (Zevenbergen et al., 2004). In the same manner, many Western countries also recognized the problems that were associated with a decreasing interest that students have in taking up more advanced mathematic subjects.

The examination of the nature of cognitive development that was related to mathematics difficulties of young students involved the number sense, which was defined as the movement from the initial development of basic counting abilities to a more sophisticated understanding of number relationships, patterns, operations and place values (Bryant, Bryant, Gerste, Scammaca  Chavez, 2008). There were essential elements of the number sense that included counting, number knowledge (i.e. quantity discrimination, counting sequences, among others), number transformation (i.e. addition, subtraction, verbal and nonverbal calculations), and estimations (i.e. group size).
In 2005, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) declared a vision of a future wherein all students will have access to rigorous and high quality mathematical instruction, as well as a curriculum that will be rich in mathematical instruction, which will provides students with opportunities to learn important concepts and procedures about the subject (Paul  Miller, 2007). They urged educators to purse new directions in mathematics education that would help students move out of a narrow and highly procedural set of experiences to one that was closer to a more challenging mathematical instruction.

According to Luowenberg (2001), the mathematics education community should actively seek to improve the teaching of this subject in the country. Reforms were often perceived to bring about widespread impact because of the critical significance of this subject in the achievement of academic success for the students. The subject should be presented with an understanding that it was a skill that provided high standards for progress and accomplishment (Luowenberg, 2001).

Seo (2003) pointed out that the development of appropriate early mathematics education programs would help children get ready for more advanced mathematical subjects wherein most failures come from. Children, especially those from low-income households, often have difficulty with school mathematics and science. This should be the focus for intensive early mathematics education that would provide the foundations for preparations.

Professional Development
    In the times wherein the students of today lived, there were different elements that brought changes to society, work, school and life. Variables, such as technology, globalization, the information age, and different patterns of family, leisure, and work, brought changes to the society, in comparison to that of past generations.  The curriculum in schools needed to be relevant to the changes in the wider society in order to ensure that these institutions of academic learning were adequately preparing students for the world beyond the school (Zevenbergen et al., 2004).  Students grow up in technology-rich environments in which they no longer have to get up and change the channels of their television sets.

Mathematics education in the modern time needed to be relevant given the nature and importance of this subject in the larger society. The students need to develop mathematical ways of viewing and interpreting the world and they need to enhance their problem-solving skills. More than that, the students need to have a disposition for utilizing the subject to solve the problems they were confronted with (Zevenbergen et al., 2004).

Thus, school teachers need to adopt new pedagogies that would cater for the diversity in the classroom and would be relevant to the new generation of students. Old models of seated individual work from traditional mathematics instruction possibly created problems for students progress in the subject (Zevenbergen et al., 2004). A number of students often voice out negative feelings and misleading learnings about the subject due to their encounter with the outdated models of instruction.
The mathematics curriculum that was started before the 1960s focused on arithmetic and operations. Most of the models of instruction for the subject developed after this in the Western countries, which arose after the Sputnik era, when the race to the moon was translated to the race of intellectual superiority among the nations and mathematics were considered as the linchpin for success (Zevenbergen et al., 2004).

The new mathematics paved the way to a lock-step approach to teaching the subject with hierarchies in orders and sequences in teaching. The decade after that saw a revival of the mathematics curricula. It was influenced by arguments of logic and reason, despite the fact that they were not research based (Zevenbergen et al., 2004). The hierarchal approach to teaching mathematics was described by the use of the skill, drill and kill approach, to be followed by application and problem solving. For most mathematics teacher, this had become a way of life. Much of what was written in the reforms in the 1970s was based on insignificant research foundations and raised questions to the validity of this curriculum (Zevenbergen et al., 2004).

The recent times reflected the realization that such approaches did not result in positive learning outcomes. Researchers argued that all students learn from their 10 years or more compulsory schooling was the fact that they cannot be good at mathematics (Zevenbergen et al., 2004 Burns et al., 2006). The countries that did not implement this approach, such as Netherlands, were described to have new methods and approaches of teaching the subject. They focused on teaching students to think mathematically that enabled the learners to draw on understandings and build on them, as they progressively move towards more abstract and formal mathematical processes (Zevenbergen et al., 2004).

According to Adams (2000), there were many approaches that could be used to teaching mathematics to young children and many theories of learning addressed how they could be empowered to learn the subject. More than the chosen method, it was the childrens varied learning styles, strengths, experiences and perspectives that significantly impact the success of teaching the subject. In order to achieve the goal of helping children develop mathematical competencies, it was important to recognize that children have multiple means of learning or intelligences.

Howard Gardners multiple intelligence theory described that the children employed different intelligence in learning situations (Adams, 2000). Children could have one or more intelligences, which could serve as a mechanism for learning and lead to the development of a cognitive ability.
According to the NCTM in April 2000, new principles and standards for school mathematics should be put in place. The standards contained five content-oriented approaches and five process-oriented ones (Adams, 2000). They functioned as a framework for using multiple intelligences that children could utilize in mathematics learning. The multiple intelligences theory provided a platform by which learners diverse problem solving characteristics and strengths could be evoked.

Other contemporary approaches to teaching mathematics encouraged two aspects, which were content and pedagogy (Zevenbergen et al., 2004). Content referred to intellectual integrity of the subject wherein students learn, apply and appreciate it. This was where deep learning and deep knowledge were critical to learning experiences. In this way, students could make connections between the subject they learned and other curriculum areas, as well as the world beyond education. Children should have the foundational understanding that this subject was an informing discipline that had importance and relevance to many spheres of life and aspects of society.

On the other hand, pedagogy related developing supportive environments wherein student diversity was reflected and practices were developed in accordance to this recognition. Approaches recognized that the different background and knowledge that students bring to the classroom were to be used for the enrichment of knowledge (Zevenbergen et al., 2004). This was highly associated with the recognition and utilization of multiple intelligences in individuals.

The mark of good pedagogy was the development of inclusive practices to develop and extend the students learning and confidence for the utilization and practical application of the principles of the subject. The classroom is a place that should value and appreciate the benefits of the different backgrounds and capabilities of the mathematics students. The development of inclusive practices should enhance intellectual integrity among the students (Zevenbergen et al., 2004). Furthermore, teachers must be able to express their perception of value for the students, as well as their belief that each student could develop skills in mathematics.

According to Zevenbergen and his colleagues (2004), productive pedagogies were those that were about high intellectual engagement and helping students see and make connections it is learner-centered, where each individuals knowledge and culture is valued, and learners feel supported in their learning.

Lloyd and Frykol (2000) pointed out that the differences in instructional methods that the prospective teachers were expected to use in schools and the experiences that they had as students of mathematics were perceived as opportunities by which mathematical and pedagogical ideas could be reviewed. Teachers also needed to experience for themselves a greater understanding for the subject in terms of exploring, guessing, testing, estimating, arguing and proving.

Overall, before the teachers could teach through new modes of instructions, they need to learn mathematics in a manner that encourages them to active engagement with mathematical ideas. It was true that if they were not exposed to this, all they would know would be how they were taught in their own time. It was quite possible that teachers would merely repeat the classroom instruction that they were exposed to, even if it included imposing trauma on the students to learn mathematical concepts and principles through blackboard drills and similar activities.

Unfortunately, this was a reality for teachers, as most possessed weak knowledge and narrow views of the subject and the pedagogy that included conceptions of mathematics as a closed set of procedures (Lloyd  Frykhol, 2000). These included viewing teaching as telling and learning and accumulation of information. It was important to apply reform themes that could be enacted in the classroom of future math teachers. These conceptions need to be challenged and developed in such a manner that it would radically eliminate the skill, drill and kill approach for teaching mathematics.
According to Copple (2003), teachers that worked in early childhood settings needed to undergo extensive training. The task of improving and setting the foundations for what a young child could believe about mathematics would be critical for the childs future. The efforts to improve the quality of the curriculum and instruction in the early years could make a difference in society. However, the dark reality was there were hundreds of thousands untrained early child educators, along with a host of teachers with basic early childhood training but little preparation in relating and teaching mathematics (Copple, 2003).

Preservice teachers need to engage in new conceptions regarding the subject, especially in the context of middle schoolers (Lloyd  Frykhol, 2000). They needed to be exposed to school reform-oriented curriculum materials that would help them recognize new perspectives about the subject, even if it would entail learning unfamiliar mathematics using pedagogical methods that they have not experienced when they were still studying. This involved training preservice teachers to accept unconventional methods of teachings in order to enable students to learn and understand the subject from a different and a more impassioned perspective.

It would be highly beneficial for the least trained personnel to be exposed to the core messages for mathematics education (Copple, 2003). Furthermore, early childhood educators should provide fruitful direction for children to explore mathematics in the developing or identifying of materials that they might find interesting, but could develop their mathematical skills. It was without a doubt that the educators knowledge and skills were vital to educational effectiveness.

In order to improve the mathematics curriculum, it was critical for the teachers to improve their own learning curve and for them to receive new materials in learning the new mathematics (Copple, 2003). Teachers needed to know relevant mathematics lessons that would work well with children. It was advantageous to provide children with lessons that they could experience with real life application in their age. In order to do this, individual assessment of what the children were interested in and what they were capable of doing would make a significant improvement. It was also important for teachers to avoid underestimating the range of the young mathematics learner and their interests for the subject (Copple, 2003). It was easy to fall into this trap because of the negative personal experiences the teachers have had during their time.

According to Zevenbergen and his colleagues (2004), teachers commonly dreaded issues of behavior management that were associated in teaching mathematics classes. They knew that few students considered mathematics as an enjoyable subject due to the backlash of the drill, skill and kill approach to teaching.  Many elements of productive pedagogies were commonly absent in todays classrooms. Students would be unengaged in deep learning about and through mathematics (Zevenbergen et al., 2004). It was also discovered that while students undertook the most activities during mathematics classes, they did not engage much in any deep mathematical learning. This highly explained the construed misbehavior of children during mathematics classes, because they were bored with the subject and the pedagogy was ineffective.

It was important to consider the changes that teachers could make. It was not the schools that could make a difference for the students, but the individual teachers (Zevenbergen et al., 2004). Teachers have a powerful influence over the students, in terms of what and how they learned in the classrooms. The provision of an appropriate learning environment, wherein the content and pedagogy matched the background, needs and interests of the students could make students want to learn the subject and make them understand and use it as well.

Furthermore, it was important for teachers to change their attitudes towards the subject as well. While they dread the childrens behavior towards the subject, they also need to change their beliefs towards the ability and the interest of their class for mathematics. The most important influences on learning included the teachers belief that not only selected students could learn mathematics but everyone could (Zevenbergen et al., 2004).  The values and stereotypes that teachers carried could be interpreted and implemented in the way teachers teach their classes.  Thus, when teachers believe that their students were unable to learn mathematics due to their background, behavior, and even gender this would ultimately impact the learning environment that constructed the expected outcomes (Zevenbergen et al., 2004).

Tanner and Jones (2001), as well as Ray and Elliot (2006) stressed on the relationship of teacher behavior to classroom behavior. It was important for teachers to be able to create a classroom atmosphere that encourages learning. The way a teacher addresses the classroom pre-empt misbehavior and can encourage learning. Thus, it was critical for teachers to show that viewing their students to be bright and excellent, especially in the mathematics subject is one of the ways by which students will mirror this behavior. Furthermore, teachers should avoid declaring that the subject was hard and that it was a subject that would be the students waterloo in the future. This could create an atmosphere of tension and dislike for the subject.

Tutoring
Since middle school is a critical time in a students academic progress, the preparation and their performance during this time needed to be ready for advanced studies in critical thinking.  Flores and Kaylor (2007) pointed out that there were significant gaps in the students understanding of certain mathematical concepts, areas that were defined to make use of critical thinking skills.  The performance of the students in mathematics classes could be understood in different manners, which included the intervention programs, student achievement and gender patterns. These areas would be analyzed to understand the existing trends that were available in mathematics achievement.
According to Wasik, Bond and Hindman (2002), tutoring was a common after-school activity that provided children with additional avenues for instruction in subject areas wherein they were either struggling with or trying to excel in. Tutoring programs were noted for their significance, especially in high-poverty neighborhoods wherein limited in-school resources were available and unable to meet the needs of numerous children. Unlike other after-school experiences that focused on enrichment, leisure activities and purely custodial care, tutoring in mathematics had a strict focus on academic emphasis.

This academic focus, presented many challenges for schools and community organizations in trying to establish programs that would reinforce concepts that were presented during school or teaching new information. Usually, well-trained professionals were ideal tutors. However, given the budget of schools in poverty-stricken communities, they could not be afforded. Instead, the schools needed to challenge organizations in the schools and in the communities to establish programs serviced by volunteers (Wasik, Bond  Hindman, 2002).

In the context of solving word problems, tutoring provided both calculating and mathematical cognition skills (Fuchs et al., 2008). Even if word problems were required for correct calculation for a solution, students needed linguistic competencies in order to master this. This created difficulties in the academic achievement for students in using mathematics, as a critical tool for academic and real life challenges.

Tutoring has become on of the most common prevention system for academic difficulties and failure (Fuchs et al., 2008). Students that failed to respond to general education, enter secondary prevention. In most research studies, secondary prevention involved one or more rounds of tutoring. Those that failed to improve through such strategies could be recommended for tertiary interventions that made use of intensive instruction that was typically individualized in programming (Fuchs et al., 2008).
There was an increasing need to adapt a model of academic enablers wherein one should contribute to academic achievement, through the provision of additional skills and attitudes that could be taught explicitly in order to increase student learning (DiPerna, Elliott, Volpe, 2002). This should not be considered exclusively for assessment or intervention strategies alone. It was something that should be presented in prevention services.

Davenport, Arnold and Lassman (2004) also described how tutoring was one of the most successful programs for low-achieving students. It emphasized that prevention was better than remediation. Instruction in this setting was designed to increase the amount of time engaged in the learning processes of the subject.  Mastery of the subject required more time for the student to be exposed to the subjects concepts and principles.

Furthermore, since tutoring was more hands-on and individualized, children could choose among activities that the teacher had prepared or the ones they have initiated by themselves. When children were able to make choices about learning, it would become more meaningful, interesting and function for them (Davenport et al., 2004). It was also possible for tutoring sessions to allow more interactive tasks that involved students more deeply in the learning process.

The current studies that explored the effects of a direct instruction program that was implemented with middle school students who were at-risk for failure in mathematics, reflected significant improvement skills as a result of participant in the fraction program (Flores  Kaylor, 2007).  This program showed that children were able to master fractions over a course of seven weeks that took away the existing structure of the classroom and implemented a more tutorial-type of learning. According to Flores  Kaylor (2007) the performance of the student increased significantly.  Furthermore, the corrective mathematics program, which consisted of modules for specific skills such as addition and multiplication, showed the option for freedom of choice according to the needs of the student (Flores  Kaylor). Thus, students could be grouped according to their individual needs and different concepts and skills could be mastered in an effective manner.

Performance
Lauzon (2001) noted that there had been considerable effort over the years that had expanded in attempts to explain the mathematics achievement gender gaps. Biological explanations have been tapped in order to explain the differences between the males and the females when it came to performance on assessments. This was something that interventions could not easily resolve. There was a danger in cultivating mathematics learning gender disparity for children as they mature into adults (Lauzon, 2001).

In another perspective, Boaler (2002) described the differential learning styles of boys and girls. Girls, because of their so-called preferred learning styles and ways of working, experienced the greatest disadvantages. The underachievement and non-participation of girls in mathematics had become established in the recent years and as a result, equity concerns had been pointed out and initiatives for raising girls achievements were implemented (Boaler, 2002).

The major difference could be observed in the top five percent students in the United States, in England, as well as in many other countries (Boaler, 2002). It showed that five boys to every four girls attained the highest grades. On the other hand, girls only made of 35 percent of the top percentile in these countries (Boaler, 2002).  The attribution theory focused on the girls anxieties and their tendency to attribute their failure to their lack of ability, and psychologists used this to suggest how female students could do better in class. Moreover,  girls experienced that they are at disadvantage when it came to their schools mathematics teaching (Boaler, 2002).

Yang (2003) revealed that the male students showed more positive motivational beliefs in physical science than did the female students, and female students exhibited more positive motivational beliefs in reading than did the male students. These various opinions about what females or males aptitudes are signaled the existence of a problem in the performance of these students. Bielinski and Davison (1998) reported a sex difference by item difficulty interaction in which easy items tended to be easier for females than males, and hard items tended to be harder for females than males.

On the other hand, Eccles and Wegfield (1985) argued that unfortunately, by the time critics pointed out that even in the same classroom, boys and girls may have very different experiences. Eccles and Wegfields study was not able to provide validity and evidence for this conclusion. Different findings about the problem have been studied in detail, but in a different period of time. Despite the studies that discussed the academic achievement gap, especially in the subject of mathematics, there were still limited research that widely discusses the role of interventions strategies in the performance of girls and boys.

Assessment
The aim of educational assessment was to produce information in order to assist in educational decision-making. This process involved administrators, policymakers, the public, parents, teachers and students themselves. Not one of these consumers of assessment information should be taken for granted. In an age of information, educational assessment systems should gather information about individual students, group of students, teachers of students, and programs for students from a different range of sources, not just tests (Lesh  Lamon, 1992 Bredekamp, 2003).

Furthermore, the information should contain multidimensional profiles of the different achievements and abilities, and descriptions of relevant conditions under the profiles mentioned. The information must be displayed in a simple, yet relevant manner in order to address the concerns of the different decision makers and their decision making processes.  There was no single source of information that could serve all purposes and there was no single characterization of students or groups that was appropriate for all decision making issues.

In a technology-based society, assessment opportunities were influenced by the fact that reports could achieve simplicity without having to sacrifice information to a single number (Lesh  Lamon, 1992). Simplicity could be attained through the use of computer-based, graphics-based, interactive and inquiry oriented assessments that focused on specific questions from specific people in a specific circumstances. The alternative approaches to assessment were not based on the fact that there was simply a need to develop new modes of assessment. Instead, the concern for education assessment methods was to change the substance of what was being measured (Lesh  Lamon, 1992).

According to Lesh and Lamon (1992), new types of response to interpretation procedures needed to be developed in order to indentify profiles of strengths and needs for the students. New data analysis models and procedures were also needed based on the assumption that was considered with the accepted viewed on the nature of mathematics, learning and real world-relevant problem solving.
New types of learning progress reports needed to be created for a simple assessment that integrates information from different sources, focus on patterns and trends in data and inform different decision-makers and decision-making issues. Furthermore, there needed to be a certain level of awareness and priority for the new decision making issues that include topics such as accountability and diagnostic analysis of learning progress, with a conscious emphasis on equity and validity (Lesh  Lamon, 1992).
According to Burns, Vanderheyden and Jiban (2006), mathematics performance assessment was considered to be more complex because of the relative paucity of data that supported technical properties of decision-making in this subject. Assessment tools for educational decision making needed to meet a certain criteria with technical data for each purpose by which the assessment tool was used. The reliability of the test data with which the academic growth was measured requires estimations through alternate-form or test-retest methods. This reflected how current standards for assessment called for evidence of validity in the assessment data (Burns et al., 2006).

In the context of the assessments in this subject, it was critical to provide a match between student performance and the instructional techniques employed (Burns et al., 2006). The apparent lack of data in examining assessment of instructional level for the subject suggested the need to empirically investigate the technical adequacy of decisions based on instructional ranges in the subject. It was important for assessments to uphold reliability and criterion validity of the fluency and accuracy criteria in order to identify the instructional level for mathematics (Burns et al., 2006).

There were also difficulties with traditional, norm-referenced tests as measures of student achievement, especially in the discipline of mathematics (Westport et al., 2001). These tests inadequately measured students performances due to the sole utility of multiple-choice options, which isolated facts, definitions and procedures. These tests were described as an anathema to mathematical reform because it perpetuated the focus among teachers, administrators and policymakers on basic skills that were bound to be presented in a linear and fragmented fashion (Westport et al., 2001). Tests would be the focus for teaching the subject, instead of actual learning objectives.

Alternative forms of assessments should be considered, such as the portfolios, performance tasks, observations and student interviews, because they offered different avenues for documenting the substantive mathematical understanding. At the same time, they supported and reinforced the changes in classroom instruction that were badly needed.

The FCAT is a multiple-choice question test.  There were questions and whether or not the expected difference was due to the nature of the exam itself becomes a questionable matter. According to Ryan (1996), 6,000 fourteen-year-old students wrote an international mathematics test, it was seen that males scored better on algebra and geometry, but females performed better on arithmetic, though all questions were presented in a multiple-choice question format.  In reality, the reason was viewed as component of the problem, which needed to be addressed. There was a research gap regarding the effect on the achievement of the female or the male students.

The chapter has presented the empirical background on which this study will be conducted. There were significant issues in the discussion of the achievement gap when it came to students performance in the subject of mathematics. This subject perhaps presented a unique challenge in terms of curriculum, assessment and intervention strategies.

The chapter has presented the nature of mathematics and its importance in the academic success of the student. Professional development for classroom instruction provided significant attention in this study. It also presented tutoring as a strategy for preventing failure in the subject. Furthermore, assessment and performance research were also considered in relation to the mathematics achievement gap.

Research Questions
1. Is the ASMT program at an elementary school in south Florida effective in increasing students mathematics academic achievement
2. Is the ASMT program at an elementary school in south Florida more effective with a female student group
3. Is the ASMT program at an elementary school in south Florida more effective with a male student group
4. Is the ASMT program at an elementary school in south Florida more effective with a combined group consisting of male and female students


Chapter 3 Methodology

The increase accountability that NCLB placed on public school systems created literatures that addressed the achievement gap at all grade levels. In this research the context of the gap focused on the disparity of academic performance between male and female students. The mathematics subject posed a significant disparity between female and male students. There was insufficient research that provided significant knowledge regarding the mathematics achievement disparity between male and female students. The purpose of this research was to investigate and compare the academic achievement between the genders for fourth-grade students in the selected elementary school in south Florida. There was also a need to present a viable intervention strategy that could close the achievement gap between male and female students.

Participants
An elementary school in the South Florida school district was the setting for this study. The students at this school come from a middle class socioeconomic background. There were 650 students that made up the population of this school for the school year 2005-2006.

In accordance with the state of Floridas A Plan, the elementary school being studied earned a grade of D for the 2001 and 2003 school years a grade of C for the 2002, 2004, and 2005 school years and a grade of B for 2006 school year. In the 2006 school year, in the area of reading, 54 of the students who participated in the Florida Comprehensive Test were at or above grade level, 59 made a years worth of progress, and 66 of struggling students made one years growth.

In the area of mathematics, 48 of all the students who participated in the FCAT were meeting high standards in math, and 68 were making learning gains in math. In the area of writing, 85 of all students were meeting high standards. The 2005-2006 Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) indicted that the lowest 25  students need improvement in mathematics (Florida Department of Education, 2006). It is clear that ASMT program played an important part to improve the mathematics academic performance of the lowest 25  students.

The student population in the elementary school being studied is 2.5 White, 39.3 Black, 34.6 Hispanic, and 0.6 Asian. In the grades 3-5 population, 98.7 of the students are classified as economically disadvantaged, 43 are students with limited English proficiency (LEP), and 20.8 are classified as students with disabilities (SWD) (Florida Department of Education, 2006). The 41 subjects who participated in the ASMT program were fourth-grade students at an elementary school in south Florida.

It was in a community where most of its population relied on seasonal work, either in farming or in a sugar factory. The school has a population of 650 students. It has 59 teachers certified in the elementary education. The teachers who taught in the ASMT program were two males and one female. One of the male teachers was the researcher who is an ESOL teacher and has 26 years of teaching experience. The tutors overall have a stellar academic math performance and produced better general results on the standardized math test (Nazzal, 2002).

The students participated in the ASMT program during the fall semester of school year of 2006-2007. The sample of this comparison will evaluate the program. The 41 participant students were divided into three groups. There were 14 female students in the first group and 10 male students in the second group. The third group contained 17 students of 9 male students and 8 female students. All of the students had been chosen randomly from the list of students who had scored a level 1 or 2 on the 3rd grade math FCAT published in the 2006 school year.  

Participants were between the ages of 9 and 10. Participants were chosen based on the needs as determined by one or more of the following criteria (a) a group of 14 female students who scored a level 1 or 2 on the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT) for mathematics administered. (b). a mixed group of 20 male and female students who scored a level 1 or 2 FCAT administered mathematics in 2006 (c) a group of 17 male students who scored a level 1 or 2 on math FCAT administered in 2006.

Instruments
In order to examine the effectiveness of the ASMT program model on students achievement at an elementary school in south Florida, Stufflebeam (2003) suggested a production portion of the (CIPP) evaluation method approach, using data from the 2007 school year, from the participants current report cards, the schools AYP Report, and standardized assessments.

The ASMT was designed to service students in 2006
The Sunshine State Standards (SSS) (Florida Department of Education, 1996) contained the benchmarks for the mathematics skills that demonstrate the participants weaknesses. It provided number sense and mathematics operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Lam (2002) reported that in placement tests, males achieved better than females. There was a large gender gap regarding the mathematic achievement at age 16 as compared to the gap seen at age 13. Also, there was a small adverse impact in all mathematics areas. Specifically, there was a slight advantage for males at age 13 and 16 in measurement skills and geometry, and a slight advantage in algebraic functions for females at the same age.

Procedures
All three groups of students were taught the same mathematics concepts by three different instructors. One of the male instructors taught the first group. The other male instructor taught the second group, and a female instructor taught the third group. The lesson plans were identical for the three groups as were all tests. The female group and the male group were the two experimental groups. The control group was the mixed male and female group. Each group received the same interventions and their math achievement was compared in terms of the effect of gender on this achievement.

The classes were held every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday from November 1, 2006 to March 1, 2007. After the tutorial class on each designated day, the teachers had training.  The training consisted of lesson plan format and the collaboration of instructors to ensure the consistency of strategies, delivery methods, matters, manipulative, and materials. This training was to ensure that all after-school teachers were presenting content in the same way. This applied dissertation employed two instruments to generate data collection.

One instrument was the FCAT scores for mathematics for the 2006 school year, which was used to verify the students performance levels prior to the program. This data covered all of the grade level expectations within the mathematics curriculum strand of the (SSS). The other instrument was the math FCAT scores for the 2007 school year, which was used to determine the effect of the ASMT program on the three groups. Every student of the three groups had both instruments to evaluate the impact of the program on each participants achievement. The mean, median, mode, and standard deviation were calculated for the three groups. Each of the measures of central tendency were compared to answer the research questions and to determine which group achieved the highest levels of performance.

Design

The mixed methods (MM) approach was utilized in order to address the research questions that were set in the first chapter of this study. MM research designs make use of the strengths from both of these research methods.

There were several research problems that specifically call for the employment of MM.  Overall, the use of MM will emerge from needs that failed to be address through the use of a single research design. When there is a need for both quantitative and qualitative approaches to be employed, the MM is the preferred design (Creswell  Park, 2007). The integration of qualitative and quantitative data presents a more holistic picture of trends and generalizations. One type of data can be insufficient to tell the complete story thus making the research lack confidence in the findings of his or her study.

In a mixed method (MM) design, the quantitative and qualitative strands of in this study occur in a chronological order.  The qualitative approach came before the quantitative approach. They are planned and implemented in order to address related but different aspects of a basic research question or questions. The MM research used inductive-deductive research cycle, the cycle of scientific methodology, as well as the research wheel (Teddie  Tashakorri, 2009).  This research involved a triangulation approach wherein the procedures undergo twice as much effort and work in order to satisfy the standards of the MM design.

Triangulation is defined as the use of different methods to study a single research problem (Creswell, 2003). For example, sampling procedures in MM studies employ both probability and purposive techniques, which are considered to be unique for an MM, design (Teddie  Tashakorri, 2009). MM data analysis also involves the integration of statistical and thematic techniques.

The quantitative research approach used methods to measure attitudes and rating behaviors (Creswell, 2003). It utilized a post positivist position in obtaining knowledge. Post positivism involved principles of determination, reduction, empirical observation and measurement, as well as theory verification (Creswell, 2003). Since the aim of this study was to analyze the comparative effectiveness of the ASMT based on gender, this research design was implemented. Gender patterns could be understood in the analysis of the comparison of student achievement of the participants.
The presentation of a hypothesis that needed to be tested called for the need to employ the quantitative research method. In a quantitative research, historical precedent existed in viewing theoretical conception as an explanation for a phenomenon. The research was designed to determine whether the gender patterns between the disparity of achievement in the mathematics subject between males and females continued, despite the implementation of the ASMT. It required statistical analysis in order to discover the level of disparity. Based on these data, the research could present valuable strategy to increasing awareness as to the level of effectiveness of ASMT in closing the achievement gap between the males and females.

The qualitative approach served only as a second approach in this study. The quantitative served as the primary and dominant approach. This approach was considered to implement constructivist knowledge claims. It observed behavior. It implemented a narrative design of inquiry.
This approach involved studying the context of the participants. It also involved validation of the accuracy of findings. This approach was included to describe the level of effectiveness of ASMT, in general. It established the framework for the research.   The objective of the research design is to examine the effectiveness of ASMT program model on student achievement for the students of an elementary school in south Florida.

Data Analysis

Qualitative Data Analysis. The first research question was evaluated qualitatively.
Research Question 1 Is the ASMT program at an elementary school in south Florida an effective strategy for increasing students mathematics academic achievement
In an effort to ascertain behavior variations exhibited by the three teachers and the students in each of the groups, the principal and the assistant principal at the target elementary school in south Florida conducted observations as part of running the program. The principal observer reported that students and teachers actual behavior both verbal and nonverbal reflected sound teaching practices for improving student learning.  An ANOVA test was conducted to test the difference between the means of the three groups to reduce the portability of a type-I error, which was the rejection of the null hypothesis even though it was true.

Quantitative Data Analysis. Methods of quantitative data analysis were specific to the last three research questions as well as another part of the first question.

Research Question 2 Is the ASMT program at an elementary school in south Florida more effective with a female student group

The dependable variable was the math FCAT score for the 2007 school year. The covariant was the math FCAT score for the 2006 school year. The female student group was the independent variable.
Research Question 3 Is the ASMT program at an elementary school in south Florida more effective with a male student group

    The dependable variable was the FCAT score for mathematics for the 2007 school year. The covariant was the FCAT score for mathematics for the 2006 school year. The male student group was the independent variable.

Research Question 4 Is the ASMT program at an elementary school in south Florida more effective with a mixed male and female student group

The dependable variable was the FCAT score for mathematics for the 2007 school year. The covariant was the math FCAT score for the 2006 school year. Student groups (male, female, and mixed) are the independent variables.

A comparison of the results was conducted to determine if the groups benefited from the program and if there was a significant difference among the groups. An ANOVA test was employed to assess the difference between the means of the three groups to reduce the portability of a type-I error, which was the rejection of the null hypothesis even though it was true. A product portion of the CIPP Evaluation Model checklist will be used to evaluate the impact of the program.

Program evaluation involved deciding the extent to which the goals of the program have been achieved. In this type of evaluation, measures of goals are developed and administered, and the resulting data are used to make decisions about continuing or modifying the program (Gall, Gall,  Borg, 2006). The evaluation findings were used to gauge the programs positive and negative effects on its beneficiaries, sort out and judge important side effects, examine whether program plans and activities need to be changed, prepare and issue a program accountability report, and make a bottom-line assessment of the programs success.  The evaluation findings were used to contrast similar programs elsewhere to make a bottom-line assessment of the programs significance and success (Stufflebeam, 2003).

The anticipated outcome of this evaluation is to aid the principal, director, and other stakeholders in identifying factors that are important to the programs success. Mainly, this applied dissertation will assist in areas that increase students mathematics academic achievement. It will also clarify the gender differences, and will indicate whether a female student class, a male student class, or a mixed male and female student class benefits better from the program, and if there is a significant difference between the groups. The applied dissertation will also serve as a guideline to track students performances and help in continued funding opportunities to continue the program or not, and also to separate boys and girls, or not. Just as significantly, it will serve as a relevant guide to assist the school district in implementing district-wide after-school tutorial programs.

Limitations

    The research, due to various constraints in time and resources, has several limitations. The methodology employed could have used a much larger sample size to give a more accurate measurement of the variables under studied. The methodology could also be improved a more complex method could be employed to check the validity and accuracy of the data gathered. Finally, the study lacked further and in-depth related review on the specific topic at hand.

A curriculum involves both formal and informal initiatives that affect the effectiveness of relationships, equal chances at life, and the principles on which the structure, procedures, and management of a school are anchored (Eschenbach, 2010 Schmoker  Marzano, 1999 Westbury, 1970). Informal curricula pertain to the implicit alternatives to imparting formal content (Epstein, 1994, 1997). A curriculum is not a means of imbibing lessons from the teacher to the student instead, it is a dynamic process of instruction, learning modes, and social interaction between the two. It is mainly focused on the development of an individual (Chen, 1998 Westbury, 1970).
There are two curricula of interest in the current study, namely, the Montessori-based curriculum and the standards-based curriculum. An overview and the strengths and weaknesses of each shall be discussed in the succeeding sections.

2.2 Overview of the Montessori Curriculum
Montessori (1948, 1965, 1981) espoused that the inherent problems with traditional modes of learning must be resolutely resolved through a paradigm shift in educational approach.  Dr. Montessori first focused her efforts on mentally retarded children and subsequently, she received academic and global acclaim for these initial efforts. Disadvantaged children passing typical tests of achievement attested to the sheer effectiveness of her unorthodox approach (Kramer, 1976). What stirred further research interest was the outcome, which suggested that disadvantaged children could and were performing at par with ordinary children (Piaget, 1970). Montessori then focused her studies onto the process of normal development to optimize childrens learning potential towards increased academic achievement (Montessori, 1948).

Montessori classrooms possessed features that typically reflected the adjustments that accommodated the needs of children (Cottom, 1996 Dansereau, 1996 Haines, 1993). A Montessori classroom is usually a large and open space, which consists of shelves as well as different sized-tables and chairs. Even though such a set-up is fairly common in contemporary Montessori accredited schools, the design of furniture well fitted for the children was a pioneering early innovation of Montessori (1948 in Elkind, 1976). Since the Montessori classroom is arranged into various areas, each is provided with educational materials for a particular subject such as art, music, mathematics, science, language, and so on. They have a high regard towards special tools and materials, and ensure that these resources are meaningfully interrelated and contribute substantially to the curriculum (Camp, Judge, Bye, Fox  Bowden, 1997). Their materials are broken down into organized steps that children can separately learn, prior to putting them together to accomplish the main activity (Lillard, 2005). This setting is in stark contrast with mainstream education where children mostly learn out of texts. At elementary level, books are regarded as important tools for learning however, Montessori believed that hands-on materials were more helpful for the development of deep concentration among children (Glitter, 1966, 1970 Piaget 1970).

Schools that advocate the Montessori system give high premium to respect for an individuals needs (Lillard, 1996, 2005). Children are given the freedom to comfortably and effectively meet their needs for learning (Montessori, 1948, 1965). The archetypal Montessori classroom does not assign seats to students, and they are given free rein to work anywhere, whether on tables, on the floor, or a location of their own choosing (Lillard, 1996). Moreover, they can also opt to work on their own or in groups that they themselves form, when the teacher is not delivering a lesson for the plenary (Glitter, 1966 1970). Montessori education is characteristically organized in a stringent sense and such orderliness may discourage students particularly at the preschool level, where classrooms are very quiet, unlike what students in traditional preschools have been accustomed to (Grieshaber  Ryan, 2005). Research suggests that an orderly environment has been correlated with optimal learning results among children however, parents may not always agree with such stringent regulations (Grieshaber  Ryan, 2005 Lillard, 2005).  Furthermore, rather than giving tests to evaluate the abilities of students, teachers in a Montessori institution observe children at work, and coach them on an individual basis, when called for (Grant, 1985 Zeman, 1996).

The introduction of novel content will only be given when students exhibit the behavioral indicators related to satisfactory understanding of the material previously taught (Piaget, 1970).  Under such a carefully planned method, children easily learn how to write in cursive at the age of 5. Their reading skills become conspicuous months after their writing begins (Montessori, 1948, 1965). The long-term advantages of being able to read at an early age have been empirically proven (Boehnlein, 1995 Coleman  Vaughn, 2000 Cunningham  Stanovich, 1998 Falik, 1969). For instance, the vocabulary and reading comprehension of eleventh graders were significantly predicted by their reading fluency from 10 years before (Cunningham and Stanovich, 1997). Moreover, the study of Byrne  Fielding-Barnsley (1995) among pre-school students who were trained in language awareness attained higher results in reading comprehension tests after three years, similar to those who were educated under controlled conditions. Moreover, proficiency in reading skills can best be predicted by a childs level of interest in reading (Lonigan  Whitehurst, 1998). These findings suggest that forcing children to go through a difficult, tedious process to develop reading skills will not instill in them the joy of reading  a definite characteristic of individuals who read a lot (Mckenzie, 1995 Yott, 1976). Unlike the long and difficult process that majority of mainstream children conventionally go through, learning to read and write under a Montessori system transformed reading into an enjoyable activity (Harvey, 1999 Lonigan  Whitehurst, 1998).

2.3 Effectiveness of Montessori-based Education and the Optimal Experience Theory
Montessori (1967) implies that the lengthened development period of children has meaningful consequences for the learning of children. In effect, the observations and experiences of children during this time frame have implications on the development of the child and persona. In fact, the early years have been considered by Montessori as an extension of fetal life, where there is close interaction with external stimuli, marked by experiences that potently influence the childs character (Montessori, 1948).  She acknowledged that encouragement of the characteristics of young children, which include extemporaneous focus and engaged discovery, may transform society and encourage individuals of all ages to continuously learn (Harvey, 1999). She further opined that society is structured with adults, rather than childrens, traits as a focal point (Hallenberg, 1996).
Under the Montessori educational system, children are often seen as motivated doers instead of empty vessels (Lillard, 2005). According to Elkind (1976), the Montessori system regards children as active learners therefore, children in Montessori classrooms develop their own, distinct way of learning. This is made possible when they pursue their own projects and choose what they want to learn (Montessori, 1965). The Montessori system has at its core the following principles

The first principle is that there is a close relationship between movement and acquiring knowledge (Lillard, 2005). An individuals brain can only evolve in a world in which he or she moves (Ginsburg and Opper, 1979 Healy, 1995).

The second principle is free choice, anchored on Montessoris (1948, 1965) observation that children develop in an environment that promotes personal choice and control among children (Fitzwilliam, 1978).

The third Montessori principle is interest, which can be personal and can naturally come from within or can be situational or that which is developed when exposed to certain people, events and activities (Lillard, 2005).

Montessori programs do have limits on such freedom owing to its structured approach to learning however, children are free to exercise greater autonomy compared to those in mainstream classroom settings (Kai, 1993 Kendall, 1993). Freedom and choice, when incorporated in a structure that is prudently planned, are correlated with better psychological and learning outcomes (Isaacs, 2007 Turner, 1993).

    Csikszentmihalyis (1997) concept of flow is remarkably similar to Montessoris (1948, 1965) concept of focus, as pointed out by Rathunde (2001). In effect, ideal learning environments are able to maintain experiences of intense focus, and allow the learner to refer and re-experience them this process allows for a complex, sustained growth that compels further focus and learning. In support of these theories, a setting that encourages optimal experience and sustains focus is ideal for learning. Such a system must be complicated, in that it allows for flexibility of adjusting from opposite ends of a continuum liberty vs. structure or individuation vs. sense of being a collective. Such complexity permits the adolescent to continuously adjust and maintain focus.  In Montessori elementary schools, children pursue learning by writing and articulating about things that fascinate them and relating these to content (Hainstock, 1997).

The first three principles of Montessori are in consonance with the flow concept empirically investigated by Csikszentmihalyis (1990) for two and half decades. Optimal experience theory upholds that subjective experience is at the core of an individuals growth. Flow pertains to moments when a person is completely focused on an activity, unmindful of time, resolute about what needs to be achieved. In such a condition, an individuals awareness is synergized with activity and the latter is carried out through sheer motivation than any other external reward that comes with task accomplishment. The flow theory asserts that an ideal match exists between the individuals competencies and the task relegated to him, thus implying an effectual relationship between the environment and the individual and the latters full engagement on the activity (Csikszentmihalyi 1997 Csikszentmihalyi  Selega-Csikszentmihalyi, 1988).  

The fourth principle states that extrinsic rewards should be avoided which suggests that grades and gold stars may disrupt the concentration of students (Lillard, 2005). Interest in an activity can be best sustained in the absence of extrinsic rewards (Loeffler, 1994).  In addition, the fifth principle of Montessori education focuses on learning with and from fellow students. In the traditional school community, the teacher provides the children with information and the structure of learning precludes children from optimally learning from each other (Lillard, 2005). Working in teams seldom transpires in mainstream classrooms, where activities are heavily focused on cognitive ability, such as tests and papers are alone individually (Coe, 1996 Rathunde  Csikszentmihalyi, 2005). In contrast, Montessori institutions accord their students with the freedom to work groups, to optimize skills acquisition and development (Gettman, 2001).

Yet another means through which children learn is through effective context (Lillard, 2005). This is the sixth principle of this system. In mainstream schools, children sometimes learn superficially, without profound conceptual understanding of how their learning can be applied beyond school tests (Shapiro, 1994). In contrast, Montessori education teaches children by doing, not just through sheer auditory or visual means learning is thus strongly experiential (Epstein, 1990). For instance, when students go out, those who are interested in building bridges and structures can come up to a local engineer who can explain to them how bridges are actually built and designed (Gettman, 2001). This method reflects that learning is made more potent when it engages the current interests of the student (citation), which is yet another confirmation of the optimal experience theory (Csikszentmihalyi 1990 Csikszentmihalyi  Selega-Csikszentmihalyi, 1988).

A setting that allows for optimal experience is what Csikszentmihalyi (1997) describes as an environment that permits flow. Montessori (1989) shares that a conducive environment for learning is characterized by being free in selecting the activity or task that one is to engage in. Only in having such an environment will extemporaneous focus be possible. Haberman (1976) notes that the Montessori approach is distinct from other approaches that permit unconstrained freedom of the child, because they place high premium on the value of intrinsic drive. In contrast, Montessori (1948, 1967) has seriously considered this point and ensured that the Montessori approach delimits such freedom reasonably, making sure that order and structure are still complied with. Thus, as Joosten (1995) notes, the Montessori approach accords freedom to children in making the correct options, and not any other task that they so desire. Moreover, such liberty is imperatively constrained by the welfare of the group as embodied in taking turns and respecting other children ensuring that things are packed away properly, and the overall readiness of the child to take on novel lessons (Loeffler, 1994 Ramachandran, 1997 Shapiro, 1994).

Still on the careful planning and structuring of the environment for optimal learning, it should be filled with materials that will spur the interest and address the preferences of the child compelling him to be inquisitive and stimulating his intellect (Hilliard, 1996 Martin, 1993). The Montessori approach likewise places premium on concrete, rather than ambiguous, abstract, concepts (Lillard, 2005). Be that as it may, much effort is allotted in the structure and organization of teaching materials that are sequentially offered to the child (Rathunde, 2001). The child is thus constrained only to the options that are equivalent to his competency level (Kramer, 1976). Thus, he is not given more stimuli just for the mere sake of discovery. The materials that are presented to him to a significant degree decrease the probability for mistakes (Dansereau, 1996). This approach provides an effective, concrete interface between the child and the material. While this point of interface is distinct for each child due to their varying competency levels and upbringing, they all share the changing equilibrium between thoughts and action (Haines, 1993).

The seventh principle of Montessori education focuses on how teachers must interact and communicate with children (Lillard, 2005). When adults set clear parameters as regards limits and yet grant them a significant degree of freedom within these parameters, learning outcomes are more likely (Ramachandran, 1997). Adults maintain a high level of expectations for them, allowing development, understanding, responsibility, achievement and other favorable outcomes (Csikszentmihalyi 1997 Hilliard, 1996). Traditional schools have become absorbed in the command and control attitude, which has posed stringent demands on their students, and have yielded certain repercussions instead of positive results (Hainstock, 1997). Finally, the eighth principle of Montessori education is to create order in the environment for students to have an orderly mind (Lillard, 2005). Montessori classrooms are very organized with how materials are laid out and the logical sequence of their usage (Amsterlaw and Wellman, 2006 McKenzie, 1995). Orderliness in instruction is critical in promoting a childs learning, growth and development (Hilliard, 1996 Pickering, 1992). It has also been suggested that presenting materials in organized manner allows for positive adjustment and regulation of ones senses (Lillard, 1996).

As a result, children who experience Montessori-based education develop high motivation as the values of independence, autonomy, confidence, and discipline are indelibly imbibed through instruction (Brendtro  Long, 1997 Duax, 1989 Turner, 1993). Because of their positive experiences in learning, education becomes a source of pleasure rather than a burdensome, tedious process (Hainstock, 1997), again sharing a commonality with what optimal experience theory espouses (Csikszentmihalyi 1990). Each student is given many opportunities for developing his natural abilities to their full potential, in an environment where competition is nil and insignificant . Consequently, students under the Montessori educational system develop a strong drive for learning and a predisposition towards high levels of academic achievement (Coe, 1996 Loeffler 1992, 1993).
Rathunde (2001) asserts that there are three areas of commonality between the theory of optimal experience of Csikszentmihalyi (1990) and Montessoris (1948, 1965) principles.  The first commonality is the fact that the child is placed as a social focus, acknowledging that their highly developed traits lend credence to the high stature of human nature. A second point that the two frameworks share is the acknowledgement that profound focus, known in Csikszentmihalyis  (1997) typology as flow is very closely linked to childrens biological heritage (Rathunde, 2001, p. 12) and that the unification of mental facilities and the physical body is the core of human development and drive for continuous learning. Finally, the recognition that social settings such as academic institutions ought to be structured in a manner that encourages focus, interest, critical thinking, and learning (Rathunde, 2001).

Montessori (1948, 1965) acknowledged that humans are distinguished from other life forms since humans have a prolonged childhood. In lieu of this, she expresses, Man seems to have two embryonic periods. One is prenatal, like that of the animals the other is postnatal and only man has this. The prolonged infancy of man separates him entirely from the animals. It forms a complete barrier, whereby man is seen as being different from all others (Montessori, 1967, p. 60). Yet another similarity between the approaches of Montessori (1965, 1989) and Csikszentmihalyi (1990) is on the importance of a conducive environment to learning. Whereas Montessori (1965, p.189) terms her ideal environment as a prepared environment, Csikszentmihalyi (1990) cites the importance of building an ideal home to encourage optimal experiences among adolescents. The similarities between these two are as follows. First, attaching high premium to extemporaneous interest to such extent as to take as a parents main objective building an ideal context for optimal experiences. Second, is preserving equilibrium between liberty and rules that promotes an equivalent balance in the childs focus. Third, is the concept of a parent as someone who preserves the adolescents focus to avoid disturbances. Finally, being adept at observing the behaviors of the adolescent to ensure the optimal balance between learning a previous concept or introducing a novel lesson.

A multi-faceted family is likewise an effectual venue for promoting focus and flow, for as long as it permits the formation of the values supportive of optimal experiences (Chen, 1998). These necessitate the presence of reasonable freedom and discipline sense of self and community and individuation and collective sense (Cottom, 1996 Montessori, 1981). To build an ideal learning environment for the child, the parents of a Montessori-educated child ought to promote a healthy equilibrium on these extremes of the continuum (Glitter, 1970 Grant, 1985). The behaviors that promote such a balance include compassion, empathy, taking away disturbances that go against flow, allowing the child to select his tasks, among others. Rathunde (2001) puts forth that these conditions trigger interest. In contrast, the imbalanced provision of freedom or rigidity in rules hamper the formation of optimal experiences (Dansereau, 1996). Rathunde (2001) and Montessori (1948, 1965) further assert that optimal experience research prods adults to pay greater emphasis to the experiences of children and on their capability for spontaneous activity and focus to enthuse continuous learning and development.

The teacher takes on a critical role in the process of building optimal experience (Montessori, 1965). She catalyzes the process through which the child channels his energies to focus. An important trait of the teacher is her capability to maintain a structured environment, in materials preparation and coordination, and ensuring that all materials are easily accessible to all children (Dansereau, 1996). The effectual teacher preserves the concentration of the child and disturbances are reduced to avoid lack of structure and waste of energy (Montessori, 1981). This process eventually permits the child unambiguous responses that will allow her to maintain focus (Rathunde, 2001).

    There should be keen awareness on the part of the Montessori teacher, as regards the environment in which the child moves. She must make certain that the environment is dovetailed to the needs of the child since it is the channel through which flow and optimal experiences are encouraged. The environment captures the childs inherent drive for spontaneity. Apart from maintaining the environment for learning, the teacher is likewise tasked to observe the experiences of the child (Montessori, 1965, 1981). In effect, the teacher takes careful note of instances when indifference or monotony are exhibited since these preclude flow (Grant, 1985). These sessions of observation are not obtrusive, compared to those done in mainstream classroom, and are carried out with the clear intent of helping others realize their full potential (Zeman, 1996).  In addition, the teacher must exercise prudence in her words to ensure that the child maintains his intrinsic drive similar to knowing when it is not right to disrupt the work pace of an adult who is carrying out a task intensely (Rathunde, 2001). Clearly, under the Montessori approach, the highest premium is attached to the childs focus (Lillard, 1996, 2005).

There is also no benefit in assisting children in carrying out tasks to completion, especially if they are in reality, capable of completing these on their own.  She promoted a balanced approach to giving adequate input to the child  nothing more and nothing less to optimize learning (Montessori, 1989) increase feelings of self-efficacy (Claremont, 1995) and allow the child to challenge his development limits (Schmidt, 2009). These teacher characteristics are reliant on the teachers belief in her calling to foster the quintessential meaning of childhood, which ought to be perceived as among the noblest objectives of society (Montessori, 1965, 1989). Moreover, the teacher must be convinced that focus and spontaneous energy is the core of authentic learning and development if such are freed in a prepared environment and reinforced in a consistent way, the child will imbibe discipline, which he may apply in other facets of his development (Lillard, 1996, 2005). 

For over a century, Montessori education has burgeoned in popularity, with an estimated 5,000 schools and institutions in the United States alone, including 300 public schools and some high schools adapting the Montessori curriculum (Lillard, 1996, 2005). Montessori education is primarily characterized by classrooms that include students of various ages (Elkind, 1970 Piaget, 1970) a special set of educational tools and materials dovetailed to students needs (Lillard, 2005) activities that are mostly chosen by the students (Montessori, 1948, 1965) collaboration and teamwork absence of typical measures of cognitive ability and an emphasis on both academic and social skills (Martin, 1993 Orem  Coburn, 1978).  The Montessori approach effectually responds to the behaviors and difficulties that students with emotional disabilities manifest.

The primary aim of Dohrmans (2003) study is to identify the main effects of Montessori education among students with emotional and behavioral disorders, compared with other elementary school education programs. Children were studied in two of the levels in which Montessori education has been widely implemented, namely, primary (3 to 6 years old) and elementary (6 to 12 years old) levels. The Montessori school that was studied is located in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, providing services for urban minority children for nine years. The Association Montessori Internationale (AMI) has recognized it for its effective implementation of Montessori principles (Amsterlaw and Wellman, 2006).

The study acknowledged all the methodological limitations of Montessori research and attempted to mitigate them. It involved a large number of Montessori teachers, gathered data from numerous students, and made use of schools that seemed to offer good Montessori quality. Even though they followed the requirements for public schools such as the use of particular workbooks and tests, they had an association with AMI, the accrediting organization that Dr. Montessori established to supervise the performance of Montessori schools. The results of the study were outstanding as the children in these public Milwaukee Montessori schools from pre-school to fifth grade attained higher grades on standardized tests in math and science compared to other schools. However, the results still have to be analyzed more carefully as the Montessori groups in this study were actually self-selected. Moreover, the influence of their parents may be the cause of such positive outcomes. The ideal study would include children who are randomly assigned, a large number of teachers, superior implementation of the Montessori curriculum as well as a longitudinal time frame (Lillard, 1996).

There were 59 Montessori and 53 control students who were investigated. The 5-year old group included 30 Montessori and 25 control children, while the 12-year old group was comprised of 29 Montessori and 28 control children. Children at the Montessori school were enlisted from all six classrooms at the primary level and all four at the upper elementary level. On the other hand, the control children were enrolled at non-Montessori schools 40 children from 27 city public schools and 13 children from 12 suburban public schools. Majority of these public schools had implemented special programs including a school system that focuses on arts, languages and discovery learning. The children in both groups were tested for their academic capabilities as well as social and behavioral skills for their importance in life, and not for the expected outcomes of Montessori education. Results suggest that there were no significant differences among the 5-year olds in terms of basic vocabulary as the latter is primarily related to ones family background. Furthermore, there were no evident differences for skills that included basic thinking and concept formation. In other tests, Montessori children were significantly more likely to use of a higher level of reasoning. Moreover, even though majority of the students with emotional disabilities were not completely friendly and sociable, Montessori children were more likely to become involved in a positive interaction with their peers and were less likely to be involved in rough play compared to those under other educational programs. The 12-year old students also yielded similar results. Those under the Montessori education were more creative and had more control in most of their tests moreover, a large percentage was more likely to choose positive responses for social situations despite their supposed lack of social skills. Montessori students were also shown to have a greater sense of teamwork and community compared to those instructed under other educational systems (Dohrman, 2003).

Such findings indicate that the children who have emotional and behavioral disabilities at public city Montessori schools had superior and more satisfactory outcomes compared to those who attended other schools. By the end of their kindergarten level, Montessori students attained better performance on tests were more engaged in a positive communication and interaction within the school setting and showed more control and flexibility (Dohrman, 2003). Moreover, at the end of elementary school, Montessori children had more creative answers in tests chose more positive responses to social problems and had a larger sense of teamwork and community in their school.  Lillard (2005) asserts that Montessori education has a structure that is primarily different from that of traditional education. When effectively implemented, Montessori education enhances social and academic skills that are equal or even superior to those fostered in other schools. Future research is suggested to improve on research design, such as sampling students at random or through a lottery design, which allows for control of parental influence. Furthermore, the other components of Montessori education such as their materials or opportunities for shared work among students can be associated to the outcomes of interest (Amsterlaw and Wellman, 2006).

Montessori programs have continuously grown over the past decades (ODonnell, 2003). There have been major factors that contributed to such growth, such as the expansion from private to public settings as well as the extension from pre-school to elementary, junior high school, and even beyond such levels (Bateman and Linden, 1998). The growth of Montessori education has brought about major concerns about outcomes on students, particularly on academic achievement (Katz, 1990). Particularly, there have been concerns about the academic performance of Montessori students who have emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) when they move to mainstream academic settings (Goldring  Presbrey, 1986).

The study of Clark, Cheyne, Cunningham and Siegel (1998) compared the academic outcomes of two groups of students who graduated from New York public schools from the years 1997 to 2001. The first group consisted of students who completed 5th grade in Montessori programs at Greenfield and MacDowell from 1990 to 1994. The second group was a sample of graduates from the same high schools, except that they did not go through any Montessori education. The Greenfield and MacDowell Montessori programs were established in the seventies and have consistently worked for a high level of Montessori practice and principles (Clark et al, 1998). Clark et al (1998) acknowledged that the favorable outcomes yielded by Montessori school research is confounded by the fact that student placed under these have affluent socio-economic backgrounds and receive positive parental influence. These extraneous variables cause them to do well academically regardless of the educational approach they receive. Their study thus addressed these confounding issues, and conducted a longitudinal study involving randomly placed students, to confine the effects of Montessori-based education.

The Montessori sample included 201 students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) who started their Montessori education at the age of three or four in the Greenfield or MacDowell Montessori schools, completed their fifth grade between 1990 and 1994 at these schools, and maintained an active standing within the New York Public Schools throughout their high school. Accordingly, a comparison group (Peer Control) was carefully matched against the Montessori group by gender, ethnicityrace, and their socio-economic status using free or reduced lunch availment as criterion. Both groups consisted of 54.7 females and 45.3 males 59.2 minority ethnic groups and 40.8 non-minority groups. About 5 of each group applied and met the criteria for a free or reduced lunch. Using GPAs to reflect overall grade point averages in high school along with grades in Math, Science, English and Social Studies, results showed that students who attended the Montessori program significantly had better performance compared to the Peer Control group in Math and Science however, there were no differences in their scores in English and Social Studies or in their GPAs. Other findings have shown that gender has a significant effect on ones GPA, as females performed better than males. In addition, students who belonged to non-minority groups performed better than minority students on their GPA, Math, Science, English and Social Studies subjects. Furthermore, the students who applied and were accepted in a free and or reduced lunch program had significantly lower GPAs compared to the students who were not (Clark et al, 1998).

Clark et al (1998) established a relationship between Montessori education and satisfactory performance on Math and Science, suggesting that attending a Montessori program from the age of three to eleven predicts higher test scores in Math and Science in high school at a future point that is, five to seven years after the students left the Montessori programs and enrolled in conventional public schools. Although there was no difference in GPA between the Montessori and Peer Control group, higher scores on certain subjects suggest that the Montessori experience had considerable impact on academic achievement. In addition, the similarities in GPAs and test scores in English and Social Studies, suggest that their families could possibly be better at simplifying the process for learning language than they are at strengthening the skills for math and science. Family environments may have a greater influence than the school environment in English and Social Studies outcomes. In contrast, the Montessori school environment may play a more potent role for outcomes in Mathematics and Science. This study lends credence to the idea that Montessori education has a positive long-term impact (Clark et al, 1998). In addition, the research findings support the assertions of Gable, Laycock, Maroney,  Smith (1991) that students with emotional and behavioral disabilities may be successful in their transition to mainstream schools.

2.6 Effectiveness of a Standards-Based Curriculum
The foregoing section highlighted the similarities between the principles of optimal experience theory and a Montessori-based approach. With this as backdrop, the review of literature proceeds with an overview of a standards-based curriculum, to allow for a comparison with the Montessori-based approach.  Educators emphasize that high standards are important in enhancing the quality of education at all student levels (Glaser  Lin, 1993 Marzano  Kendall, 1996). Compelled by this thrust, schools and districts ingeniously seek ways to develop a high-quality curriculum based on standards (Sandholtz, Martinez-Flores, Scribner,  Ogawa, 2003). An essential starting point is a carefully structured curriculum framework one that reflects the goals and standards of the community and one for which the latter is willing to share accountability for (Tomlinson, 2000). To develop a standards-based curriculum requires revolutionary change in teaching and school management (Marzano  Kendall, 1996). Therefore, prudence must be exercised in building the capacity of educators to effectively implement, supervise, and evaluate the school curriculum. Furthermore, the process of developing a standards-based curriculum should provide opportunities for policy review and updates (McIntosh, Vaughn and Zaragoza, 1991).

     Educational standards are a set of knowledge, skills and abilities that gradually build up and serve as a foundation of quality education (Harris  Carr, 1996 Weikart, 1981). Standards expressed what all students must know and be capable of doing yet should not be too overpowering as to take away the teachers discretion on the creative use of pedagogy to attain learning objectives techniques (Ravitch, 1995, 2001). Setting national standards allow students equal opportunity (Tomlinson, 2000). Pragmatically, in the absence of standards among schools, every teacher will set his own standards, complicating the demands of schools from their students. Apparently, standards provide a common framework for consistent comparison and assessment of instruction (Harris  Carr, 1996 Howell  Nolet, 2000 Marzano  Kendall, 1996). Exams provided at a national level measure the progress of students towards attaining the same standards, allowing the provision of remedial assistance to those who have fallen below these expectations (Marzano  Kendall, 1996). Harris and Carr (1996) further advocate that implementing standards is crucial as a common reference point, providing a well-defined framework for national testing. Standards can also provide focus for districts and schools for organizing the school curriculum, educational programs, and assessment plans (Tomlinson, 2000). In logical fashion, standards are useful for teachers, allowing them to effectively design the school curriculum based on the expectations brought forth by national standards and setting strategic directions for learning (Glaser  Lin, 1993 Schmoker  Marzano, 1999). In addition, students are able to fully understand what they should be doing to meet such standards.  Finally, because standards represent shared expectations for learning, these allow parents to become more aware of the learning expectations asked of them and their children at each learning level (Marzano  Kendall, 1996Sandholtz et al, 2003).

Marzano and Kendall (1996) state that educators and legislators in the United States strongly believe that the implementation of Goals 2000 Educate America Act in 1994 will initiate the movement towards achieving high standards for improving education. Since this time, the appeal for higher standards in education has come from different areas encompassing administrators, teachers, educational organizations, community leaders, parents, and students (Briars, 2000 Schmoker  Marzano,  1999). According to Cushman (1990), the standards-based curriculum has achieved stability and is gradually transforming learning in classroom settings. In the United States, at least three-fourths of all the teachers who have worked with such standards for six years strongly believe that these did have a positive effect on their schools (Marzano  Kendall, 1996). Ravitch (1995) further asserts that standards can, in fact, enhance students academic achievement, clearly defining teaching content and performance expectations from both teachers and students. The integration of standards into a schools curriculum is a complex and extensive imitative. Normally, the curriculum of a school provides the plan for instruction that point toward well-planned learning experiences and outcomes for students (Briars, 2000 Glaser  Linn, 1993 ). In more recent years, the broadening of school curricula to include every element that may influence learning outcomes has been carried out (Howell  Nolet, 2000 Tomlinson, 2000). The process of incorporating standards into the schools curriculum is comprised of four main steps creating a curriculum framework in a standards-based system context choosing a model of curriculum planning that further expresses the standards-based reform outlined in the curriculum framework developing capacity at all educational levels and supervision and evaluation of the curriculum (Apple, 2008).

Three primary principles are incorporated in the standards-based curriculum. Content standards describe what students should know or be able to do in different content areas. Benchmarks define what they should know or be able to do at a particular level. Moreover, performance standards raise awareness about what good performance looks like (Apple, 2008). Standards-based education engages students both in the process of learning because of clear performance expectations (Harris  Carr, 1996). In a school that uses a standards-based curriculum, each stakeholder involved has responsibilities for standards compliance (Hallinger  Murphy, 1986). Students are made responsible for their learning parents know what is expected from their children teachers provide a motivating learning environment administrators provide essential leadership and members of the community work to support the learning process (Harris  Carr, 1996 Marzano  Kendall, 1996).

There is great deal of difference between standards-based teaching and more traditional teaching approaches (Anyon, 2005). In standards-based education, teachers first identify the essential skills and knowledge that ought to be inculcated amongst students, and use these to focus instructional and evaluation activities (Harris  Carr, 1996). Teachers also identify the standards for performance and share these with their students before lessons begin (Hallinger  Murphy, 1986).  The use of a standards-based curriculum has been met with both success and controversy (Ravitch, 2001). Numerous school districts have reported that the efforts for a standards-based school curriculum have resulted in success in achievement tests. Furthermore, members of the community have become more involved in activities of the school (Anyon, 2005 Harris  Carr, 1996).

In contrast, there also have been negative perceptions about the standards-based approach for education (Apple, 2008). Teachers have become concerned with the copious standards attached to a single subject area or grade level (Whitty, 2002). Numerous  teachers feel that they teach their lessons with the ultimate objective of students achieving and maintaining high test scores. There have also been issues about the lack of emphasis on certain areas, such as on critical thinking and problem solving (Ravitch, 1995). Several communities express concern that their urban schools are not receiving just treatment, and that higher educational standards cause higher failure rates (Harris  Carr, 1996 Ravitch, 2001).

Wagner, Kutash, Duchnowski, Epstein and Sumi (2005) investigated the performance of students with emotional and behavioral disorders, and it was shown that it was shown that more than 6 out of every 10 children having EBD obtained the lowest scores in reading. Moreover, it has been suggested that curriculum-based measurement (CBM) has positive effects on the supervision and monitoring of the students enrolled in special education (Shin, Deno  Espin, 2000).

2.7  Special Education as an Alternative for Students with Emotional Disabilities
Special education during the 19th century was primarily established for institutions that offered services for the deaf, blind, and mentally retarded individuals. By the 20th century, it was common to see, particularly in American schools, a rising number of students who possessed physical, mental, emotional and social disabilities (Hallahan, Bradley  Danielson, 2009). By the 1970s, special education was made compulsory for students with disabilities in the categories that were legally recognized (Hallahan, et al, 2009). Aside from the United States, special education was also widely accepted in many European countries as it became a part of public education in developed nations (Hallahan  Kauffman, 2003). Prior to the passing of federal laws many students with behavioral disabilities were deprived of education or were not sent to institutions (Hallahan et al, 2009 Rockwell, 1993). After federal law ordered schools to provide special education, the number of special students in the school population continued to increase, and fewer children were sent to institutions for special needs children (Hallahan  Kauffman, 2003). A full understanding of the basic concepts of special education and the uniqueness of each individual will help teachers avoid inappropriate judgments and assumptions about special students, and obviate referring them to special education if they do not have a rational need for it (Kauffman, 2008).

Special education is intended for students with peculiar development needs (Kauffman, 2008). Under the current law, the condition of the student must significantly interfere his functioning and education for it to qualify as an emotional behavioral disability (Bradley, Danielson  Hallahan, 2002). What comprises significant interference in functioning is based on judgment and has therefore become another point of contention (Hallahan et al, 2009). Despite controversies, special education has now been integrated into public education (Hallahan  Kauffman, 2003). Moreover, students with emotional disabilities are qualified to take special education, since they are likely to be unsuccessful in mainstream educational system (Bradley et al, 2002 Hallahan et al, 2009).

The relationship that exists between special and general education has become a long-standing controversy (Oakland, 2004). There have been endless arguments regarding the role of education, and how education of children may further be enhanced (Ravitch, 1995, 2001). The promulgation of the No Child Left Behind Act has aggravated this contention (NCLB, 2002). During the past decades, students who received special education due to emotional disabilities have not taken national tests therefore, it was not possible for their performance to be compared with other students (NCLB, 2002). After the issuance of certain laws however, these students have been required to take similar tests. Supporters of this requirement strongly believe that majority of the students who have disabilities must be expected to attain passing or satisfactory grades in the same tests taken by nondisabled students (Oakland, 2004). In fact, these students pass these tests when provided with appropriate and adequate instruction (Blackorby  Wagner, 1996 Bradley et al, 2002 Hallahan et al, 2009). On the other hand, those who do not agree with such laws believe that these are unfair and unreasonable. That is, even though students with disabilities should be expected fully realize their potential, they are anticipated to receive lower academic averages compared to students without disabilities (Malmgren, Edgar,  Neel, 1998 Ruhl  Berlinghoff, 1992). 

During the 1970s, it was common to combine general and special education into one system, mainly because their differences were then hardly noticeable (Hallahan  Kauffman, 2003). Moreover, a popular notion was that these two approaches to education will not effectual if they are remain compartmentalized rather, they should become one, single system that can serve all students (Kauffman, 2008). Those who were in doubt of the demand for a single, combined system pointed out that these are part of the public education therefore, they are already a part of a single system (Bateman and Linden, 1998). In addition, they believed that any effective element of a system should have its own identity, management, budget as well as staff members. Another suggestion was that special education should merely provide to general education ultimately obviating its need as general education imbibes its principles for students with disabilities (Hallahan  Kauffman, 2003). Furthermore, protagonists of general education say that general education ought to be flexible in meeting needs of each and every student, without necessarily making special education imperative (Drasgow, Yell and Robinson, 2001). On the other hand, antagonists have drawn attention to the significance of special education, asserting its essence in serving even the most difficult disabilities, making it indispensable regardless of how general education evolves towards excellence (Drasgrow et al, 2001).

Onwards, in the early 21st century, a popular suggestion prescribes the effective collaboration of teachers of general and special education (Ruban and Olenchak, 2005), consulting each other to assess which teaching strategies will be most optimal for students with disabilities. However, even amidst the perceptible agreement with their collaboration and co-teaching, it has not been shown that it may work better than exclusive instruction from a special education teacher (Bradley et al, 2002). Those who doubt the approach acknowledge the importance of focused and intensive lessons that only a trained special education teacher can provide (Ruban and Olenchak, 2005).

In contrast, those who do not concur with this idea assert that special education cannot be considered as special because a good teacher for general education can adapt to the needs of students and can competently provide specialized instruction (Kauffman, 2008). Cook and Schirmer (2006) state that special education makes use of teaching techniques that are more individualized, meeting the individual needs of students and using dovetailed, unique methods that are not inherent in general education. Considering the wide array of perspectives on the value of special education, they concur nonetheless on the need for individualized instruction Koplewicz, 1996 Ruhl  Berlinghoff, 1992). Teachers are usually expected to have a keen awareness of the performance and behavior of each student and adjust to these (Myles, Mehaffey and Roodbeen, 2005). When teachers do not meet such expectations, they are deemed ill fit for the profession.

    A contradictory view is that teachers for special education focus more on the individual while general education teachers often focus on the students as a group (Morgan and Reinhart, 2001). According to this view, teachers for special education go beyond what general education teachers are capable of delivering, in terms of individualizing goals adapting pedagogical techniques and meeting the individual emotional and behavioral needs of special students (Lewis, Heflin  DiGangi, 1991 Myles et al, 2004 Shores, Wehby,  Jack, 1999).

In terms of curriculum and teaching methods, some students with disabilities take on a similar curriculum as that of general students, while their teachers make use of similar methods as those used in mainstream classrooms (Kauffman, 2008). Educational organizations have raised expectations of disabled students, believing that they are capable of learning the same curriculum and evaluated through the use of the same cognitive ability tests (Fuchs, Deno  Mirkin, 1984 Marston, Mirkin  Deno, 1984 Shores et al, 1999). As an offshoot of this proposal,  there is strong pressure to align the general education curriculum with special education (Hallahan  Kauffman, 2003 Kauffman, Epstein, and Cullinan, 1983).

According to Hallahan et al (2009), the direction of special education in the future has not yet been strongly established. One suggestion is that special education will entirely collapse and become an integral component of general education. This scenario is likely to happen in consideration of two points. First, is the idea that one educational approach is best for all if it is effective for one student and second is the idea that all students are expected to meet similar standards (Hallahan  Kauffman, 2003). Yet another scenario depicts that only students with the most severe disabilities shall be included in special education curricula (Kauffman, 2008). This premise is anchored on the following considerations that only a minority has truly special needs which does not rationalize the excessive growth of this segment that it serves an overly large number of children with a substantial number not needing it and the fact that it consumes a large amount from the education budget (Kauffman, 2008).
Nonetheless, another probable future state of special education is its eventual acceptance as a form of education (Morgan and Reinhart, 2001). This is likely if concurrence is established for the following points that special education is mainly about individualized teaching and instruction that teachers for special education must possess special instructional skills that special education is worthy of the additional costs and the stark contrast between the academic achievement of students subjected under special education. Rockwell (1993) further states that to a considerable extent, special education is a monetary, budgetary issue however, from another perspective, it is also about  the attitudes of society toward students with disabilities, and the opportunities that special education can accord to them (Hallahan  Kauffman, 2003 Morgan  Reinhart, 2001). Sense of fairness as well as the worth of education for children who have disabilities will always be the brunt of the issue in deciding on which educational approach is most apt for students with emotional and behavioral disorders (Hallahan et al, 2009 Kauffman, 2008).

2.8 The Needs of Students with Emotional Disabilities
    Currently, students with emotional disabilities perform at least a year or more below their expected performance in a certain grade level (Kauffman, Epstein, and Cullinan, 1983). These students are at high risk for low grades across different subject areas, and for dropping out of school (Bradley et al, 2002 Rockwell, 1993 Wagner et al, 2005). In addition, children who have emotional, social and behavioral problems enter kindergarten with inadequate capacity to learn, since they are not unable to pay attention, remember information, or act in socially desirable ways in a school setting (Falik, 1969). Consequently, a rising number of children who are hard to manage in mainstream classrooms has significantly grown (Dodge  Price, 1993). They are likely to exhibit poor social adjustment and increased behavioral problems, compared to their counterparts with other forms of disability (Bradley, Henderson and Menfore, 2004).

In the study of Malmgren, Edgar,  Neel (1998), adolescents with emotional disabilities who dropped out of high school in Washington in 1985 were enlisted. Results of the longitudinal research indicate that after a decade, only 28.6 completed a post-secondary program compared to the 66.9 completion of regular students. Moreover, data gathered by Wagner, DAmico, Marder, Newman,  Blackorby (1992) suggest  that compared to employees without disabilities as well as those with other forms of disabilities, those with emotional disabilities have longer delays in seeking employment. They also have a lower percentage of employment after going out of school as well as an overall lower employment rate following graduation. Additionally, these individuals have a greater possibility of being employed part-time instead of full time and earn less compared to individuals without emotional disabilities (Wagner et al 1992).

    The constant evaluation of the effectiveness of educational approaches for students with emotional disorders is essentially rooted on the concern  for increasing their academic achievement (Kauffman et al, 1983 Lewis et al, 1991 Mooney, Epstein, Reid  Nelson, 2003). With the implementation of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB, 2002), improvements towards increased academic performance have been incorporated into school systems. For example, achievement tests must be taken by all students throughout the country (Coe, 1996). These changes, however, are not limited to the general education of regular students, as special education institutions must comply with the requisites of these educational reforms (Oakland, 2004). The measure for academic success of these students is no longer limited to the effectiveness of individualized education or special education programs rather, such focus is broadened and increasingly shifted to responsibility of general education to address the needs of this group, since they are required to take the same cognitive tests given to the normal student population (Wagner et al, 2005) this reinforces the need to build teachers competencies for addressing the needs of special students (Epstein, 1997).

    Students with emotional and behavioral disorders demonstrate behavior that are dysfunction ally different from social or communal norms (Hatfield, 1991). These young individuals are in dire need of immediate remedial intervention to address their learning difficulties (Wagner et al, 1992). A clear definition of the behaviors considered deviant from the norm or the expected standards is warranted to solve issues on overidentification on one hand and underidentification on the other (Algozzine et al, 1991). Once these problem areas have been identified and conveyed in terms of directly observable behaviors, the duty of remediation becomes clearer (Lewis et al, 1991). Moreover, early identification of emotional problems is critical for the deployment of timely remedial interventions (McGrath, 2004). Emotional challenges persist over time, and present a greater challenge for behavioral change (Wagner et al, 1992).

    McConaughty and Ritter (1995) state that for these goals to be effectively accomplished, school-based evaluation of students needs to serve certain purposes. First is to help teachers cope better with the needs of emotional and behavioral problems in regular classroom settings (Lewis et al, 1991 Myles et al, 2004 Shores et al, 1999) .

In addition, assessments must help students improve their behavior and school performance (Ruhl  Berlinghoff, 1992) and to determine their eligibility for special education services (Marston et al, 1984). Furthermore, Greene (2001) asserts that the identification of emotionally disabled students should allow their referral to mental health services outside of the school setting if such is called for (Shores et al, 1999). However, the process of identification is complex and extensive, and requires the collaboration and involvement of professionals (Hocutt, 1996). This entails a complete review of the behavior of these students, along with an assessment of their emotional development and their environment (McGrath, 2004). Formal evaluation normally involves a thorough examination of students behaviors, individual needs and emotional responses (Hatfield, 1991 Trout, Nordness, Pierce,  Epstein, 2003).

    Frequently, children experiencing emotional disabilities are hyperactive and impulsive, precluding them a long attention span. Furthermore, they display behaviors of aggression which may cause injury to oneself and others (Miller, 1999, 2008). Their high levels of fear and anxiety predispose emotionally disabled students towards lack of interaction with others and evading situations which necessitate social interaction (Center, 1990 Morgan  Reinhart, 2001). Aside from insufficient coping skills (Kauffman, 2008 Miller, 2008), emotionally disturbed children have difficulties in learning and therefore academically perform below satisfactory grade levels (Epstein, 1997). Normal children who do not experience emotional disturbances may exhibit similar behaviors manifested by emotionally disturbed children however, among the latter, dysfunctional behaviors are retained for a substantially long period of time (Papolos, 2002).

    There has been growing recognition of the fact that emotionally disabled children and their families are in need of support, care, thorough management, and access to professional services (Nelson, 1992). Numerous communities along with their agencies and social institutions have been working towards developing such support services (Shores et al, 1999). The families of children who are experiencing emotional disabilities need to fully understand the condition of their children and learn ways to effectively work and communicate with them (Hatfield, 1991). Help is available from both mental health as well as educational professionals in public or private settings, and children must be provided with services that are specific to their unique, individual needs (Nelson, 1992 Mooney et al, 1983).

    There are two primary performance areas which are impacted by emotional disorders, namely, academic and social performance, respectively. These are discussed in detail to gain a sincere, profound appreciation of the need to seek alternative educational approaches that show potential for effectual learning and social adaptation of these students.

    Children with emotional disabilities experience academic difficulties virtually during their whole stay in school (Kauffman et al, 1983). One of the best predictors for failure and drop out is a lack of basic competencies such as math and reading (Scott  Nelson, 1998). In fact, according to the Chesapeake Institute (1994), more than 50 of students with emotional and behavioral disabilities drop out of school. This is supported by the fact that learning disabilities co-occur with emotional disorders, thus resulting in challenges to academic learning (Coleman and Vaughn, 2000). As a logical consequence of these inadequacies, they are not given many experiences of success in school (Kauffman, 2008) and likely go through decreased instructional interactions with teachers (Epstein, 1997). As an outcome, they are less exposed to lessons and other educational content (Gable et al, 1991 Kuaffman, 2008). Due to their academic difficulties, many students with emotional disabilities are unable to finish high school (Ruhl  Berlinghoff, 1992).

    Students with emotional disabilities manifest difficulties in exhibiting social skills, which can perceptibly impede learning (Wagner et al, 1992 Wilen, 1998). They may be incapable of forming relations with other people who can significantly contribute to their success and independence, or can provide them with personal, financial and professional support (Epstein, 1997). If they have such difficulties and social interrelations do not exist, there is greater possibility for social dysfunctions which may be carried on until adulthood (La Greca, 1993).

    It is critical though, that all instructions be based on the individual needs of each student. During the evaluation of the students current level of functioning and performance, there are two primary factors that must be addressed (Center, 1990). First, teachers must be able to find out whether the childs social skill problem is caused by a performance or a skill deficit. For example, a teacher can test the student by asking directly what he should do in a given situation and compare this response to the actual behavior of the student. If the student gives a correct response but is not able to display the correct behavior outside of the testing situation, his lack of social skills is more likely caused by a performance deficit (Wilen, 1998). On the other hand, if the student cannot come up with a response that is socially desirable, his social skill problem is likely caused by a skill deficit. When addressing skill deficits, more specific and direct instructions are necessary (Brolin, 2002). Meanwhile, a performance deficit calls for positively reinforced repetitions of the desirable behavior to increase the possibility of exhibiting the appropriate social response. In evaluation, it is very important to clearly identify the significant skill deficit areas (Wilen, 1998).

    Once the evaluation has been completed, students must be provided with direct instructions about how to improve their social skills (Kauffman et al, 1983 McConaughy  Ritter, 1986 Shores et al, 1999). At this point, teachers may opt to utilize a well-structured social skill curriculum or developing one by themselves. It important to note, however, that no single curriculum can satisfy the needs of all students. Therefore, it should be supported by lessons which can be developed or modified by the teachers themselves (Brolin, 2002 Gresham, 1997 Ogilvy, 1994). Lewis et al (1991) further assert that prompting the students to make use of their newly learned social skills is necessary to promote its maintenance.

    Aside from academic performance outcomes, it is also necessary for students with emotional disabilities to improve their social skills (Mooney et al, 2003). Gresham (1997) argued that an emotional disorder is practically defined by a lack of social capability. Social competence refers to the capacity of an individual to establish and maintain positive relationships with his fellow classmates and teachers, acquire social acceptance from peers, create satisfying friendships, and prevent or stop any negative or unhelpful social relations (Gresham, 2000). Students with emotional disorders have greater chances of demonstrating introverted, inconsistent, ineffective or generally negative patterns of social communication and interaction. More often, their social behavior leads them to primarily respond with annoyance and anger in their social interactions, eventually leading to rejection (Shores et al, 1999).

    Moreover, ongoing peer rejection place these students at a higher risk for unfavorable academic, social and mental health outcomes (Gresham 1997, 2000). The most possible short-term outcomes of ineffective and unhappy peer relationships can include antisocial behavior, increased aggression, absenteeism, low level of academic achievement, depression, substance abuse as well as dropping out of school (La Greca, 1993 Kupersmidt, 2003). Possible long-term outcomes may include unpleasant employment experiences, criminal behavior and a poor marital life (Nelson, 1992 Ogilvy, 1994). In further studies of students who were chosen to be at risk for emotional disorders, it was shown that unsatisfying social experiences do not only lead to a decreased level of positive social interactions these can also lower levels of academic and task achievement. In addition, the absence of opportunities for students to engage themselves in constant friendship behaviors also has consequences for the social and moral development of these young individuals (Newcomb and Bagwell, 1995).

    Poor acceptance from fellow students is an outcome of a students behavior as well as the social system in which they relate and work together (La Greca, 1993). A higher level of unity within the classroom setting will create a meaningful environment where students are accepted and are allowed to comfortably change their behavior. The teaching of moral values that support social relations including the acceptance of differences, concern for others as well as respect and fairness should be an important part of this process (McGrath, 2004). Moreover, it has been empirically demonstrated that transforming the social environment of a classroom can positively influence social behavior and peer acceptance (Ogilvy, 1994).

    It is strongly recommended that children and students be provided with an environment that is emotionally safe and secure which can prevent any form of violence and allows them to become effective learners. Moreover, such environment should incorporate the development of emotional and social skills within each aspect of their life (McGrath, 2004). Such skills include problem solving, coping, management of conflicts, as well as understanding and dealing with feelings (Patterson et al, 1989 Rutherford, 1996). Gaining emotional and social skills allows children to learn from adults initiate positive relations express their thoughts and feelings and handle their frustrations which in aggregate positively influence their cognitive learning (La Greca, 1993).  

    Parents and families play an important role in determining the development as well as the outcomes of their children not just in academic performance but in their social and emotional functioning as well (McGrath, 2004). Relationships with parents which are earlier established provide a strong foundation on which ones social ability as well as peer relations is created. Parents who show support for a positive emotional development of their children often and positively interact with their children show consideration for their needs, desires and feelings show interest in their activities have respect for their opinions show pride in their achievements and extend support in times of anxiety and failure (Jordan, 1996). Such encouragement significantly increases the possibility that children will develop early emotional capability better preparation for entering school and be less likely to display behavioral problems both at home and in school (McGrath, 2004). This is the main reason why majority of preschool programs are focused on the involvement of parents as well as parenting education (Jordan, 1996 Lonigan  Whitehurst, 1998).

    In addition, essential to a school system for emotionally disabled students are skills that directly enhance their performance and quality of life (Kavale, et al, 2004). Performance skills do not only focus on interpersonal relationships and community interaction these also include skills that will allow these young individuals to seek assistance become independent learners consistently respond to changes in their environment succeed in their employment and careers become responsible and adequately functioning adults and ultimately live productive and satisfying lives (Rutherford, 1996).

    The need to increase the students independence in learning has been often overlooked (Forness, 1996). Students with emotional disabilities may not be involved in their learning due to several issues such as lack of self-awareness absence of the feeling of belonging to a school as well as constant failures and mistakes in school (Kavale et al, 2004). Instructional strategies involve the control, management and monitoring of oneself as well as skills for problem solving and knowledge acquisition. Primarily, teachers should teach their students skills that promote responsibility, and initiative in making decisions concerning their development. Such strategies have shown great promise in improving the learning and sense of independence of students with emotional disabilities (Gable et al, 1991).

    There exists a strong relationship between behavioral problems during childhood and law-breaking habits and criminal behavior in adulthood (Gable et al, 1991). If such behaviors are left untreated, conduct problems at the early stages of ones life may place these children at a high risk for emotional and social problems, low levels of achievement, school discontinuance and failure, and eventually delinquency, in later life (McGrath, 2003). Research has also shown that a childs ability to learn is supported by a sense of stability and security and healthy relationships with their families and communities (Hatfield, 1991 Trout et al, 2003 Wagner et al, 192). In general, children who have poor relationship skills have a greater possibility of having less satisfactory, less independent, less successful and unhappier lives (Blackorby and Wagner, 1996).

    The need to demonstrate academic progress every year and achieve high standards for students has placed majority of schools under pressure in providing effective teaching practices (Dodge and Price, 1994). For students who have emotional disabilities, increasing the opportunities to attain success both in school and in life entail effectual strategies towards the improvement of academic performance and overall behavior (Rutherford, 1996). Over time, students with emotional disabilities have not had much success in attaining skills that support high levels of academic and social achievement (Patterson, DeBeryshe and Ramsey, 1989) thus, the negative outcomes in school and in life. Similar to the study of Malmgren et al (1998), Epstein, Kinder and Bursuck (1989) have found that students with emotional disabilities constantly achieved below what is expected from them in academics. In another study of the performance of students having emotional disorders, Trout, Nordness, Pierce and Epstein (2003) reported that an  overwhelming majority of such students had low academic performance. In addition, none of them performed above what was expected of their age or grade levels.

    Given the foregoing challenges which confront students with emotional disorders and their families, the problem is aggravated by teachers generally not having a comprehensive understanding of students with emotional disorders and knowhow of the effective strategies for meeting such needs (Epstein et al, 1989). Inadequate teacher training, teacher preparation programs, and research on classroom settings involving these students are prevalent problems (Ruhl and Berlinghoff, 1992). Therefore, teachers must further enhance their classroom strategies, particularly through the use of certified pedagogical techniques (Shriner and Wehby, 2004). The performance outcomes of students with disabilities, for the most part, relies on the degree to which the school setting is conducive to such performance (Elkind, 1976 Grieshaber  Ryan, 2005).). Thus, educators are confronted with higher expectations on performance concurrent to responding to the challenge of responding to the needs of emotionally disabled students and increasing their academic achievement (Dansereau, 1996).

2.9 Summary and Transition
    The review of related literature discussed the similarities between Montessoris and Csikszentmihalyis (1990) optimal experience theory. These frameworks shall be referred to in explaining the results of the current study.  Lillard (2005) asserts that a well-organized environment and a carefully planned school structure, allow enhanced social and academic performance of students. Moreover, Lillard (2005) reported that the constant use of apt tools and materials that foster concentration among children has resulted into the advancement of certain skills such as reading and writing in cursive at a very early age. Results from the study of Dohrman (2003) on public Montessori schools showed positive outcomes on the implementation of the Montessori curriculum such as higher grades in standardized tests on certain subjects, including science and math. Furthermore, Cunningham and Stanovich (1997) state that children who are trained in reading and language at an early age are likely to gain more long-term advantages such as motivation and enthusiasm to learn. Gettman (2001) also mentioned that the freedom of choice that Montessori schools encourage results in better academic and psychological outcomes.

    Mervis (2004) states that it is often difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of school programs and that the positive outcomes concluded about Montessori schools may not be completely consistent. For example, previous studies that resulted in positive outcomes in support of Montessori education, are ambivalent as to whether such results are brought about by the program or by the high quality of their teachers. Furthermore, Lillard (1996) points out the ambiguity in accrediting a Montessori school. There are no consistent tests or standards, and there is a lack in definitive criteria for accreditation (Lillard, 1996).Moreover, researchers rely on the Montessori label, assuming that it is an appropriate case for evaluating program effectiveness. Lillard (1996) further suggests that in a number of studies concerning Montessori schools, only a small sample of students were gathered. The researches are conducted only for a short period of time and thus the positive outcomes of system cannot be fully ascertained. Longitudinal studies are thus encouraged.

    The use of standards on a school curriculum has become a widely known option in improving the learning and achievement of students (Apple, 2008). A standards-based curriculum allows teachers, students and parents to develop a keen awareness of the requirements for student performance at level. Anyon (2005) further implies that educational standards serve as the primary foundation for a schools curriculum and all programs and teaching strategies revolve around them. Schools which use a standards-based curriculum have achieved higher scores in achievement tests, and have resulted in increased participation from the communities in which they operate.    

    However, according to Whitty (2002), because a standards-based curriculum is focused on educational standards, it has become a growing concern for their teachers that their only purpose for teaching is to comply with standards as attested to by high student test scores. Certain areas have also been overlooked such as the development of essential skills including problem solving and critical thinking. Furthermore, because the bar of excellence is constantly raised in pegging higher educational standards higher, failure and drop out rates are observed as well necessitating better teaching approaches.

    Children who have emotional disabilities have been enrolled in institutions of mainstream  education. In the studies of Dohrman (2003) as well as that of Clark et al (1998), the academic and psychological performance outcomes of students with emotional disorders who have attended a Montessori institution were evaluated. Findings suggest positive results for such children, including outcomes in math and science.  Moreover, they have improved their social skills despite their behavioral and emotional disadvantages. However, it has also been suggested that future research designs ought to consider the influence of parents of students who have emotional disabilities. Parental influence has been singled out as major determinant of students performance outcomes.

    In contrast, Bernstein and Borchardt (1991) showed that Montessori education was not completely successful at improving the academic outcomes of children with disabilities. There was a small growth in visual skills however, other aspects were overlooked. They have become comfortably accustomed to a Montessori school setting, though the teaching methods and strategies were not able to reach out to each student. In summary, the Montessori curriculum may prove itself useful to a large student population, though other students such as those with emotional and behavioral disabilities may do better in schools with more specialized systems. The latter may be able to more consistently address the unique needs of these students.

    The following chapter shall present the methodological approaches that shall be used in the research, clearly explaining the research approach and design, sampling, instrumentation, procedure, and methods of data analysis that have been utilized.